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RE2D(1) RE2D(1) NAME re2d - generate fast lexical analyzers for D SYNOPSIS re2d [ OPTIONS ] [ WARNINGS ] INPUT Input can be either a file or - for stdin. INTRODUCTION re2d works as a preprocessor. It reads the input file (which is usually a program in D, but can be anything) and looks for blocks of code enclosed in special-form start/end markers. The text outside of these blocks is copied verbatim into the output file. The contents of the blocks are processed by re2d. It translates them to code in D and outputs the generated code in place of the block. Here is an example of a small program that checks if a given string con- tains a decimal number: // re2d $INPUT -o $OUTPUT -i module main; private bool lex(const(char)* yycursor) { /*!re2c re2c:YYCTYPE = char; re2c:yyfill:enable = 0; [1-9][0-9]* { return true; } * { return false; } */ } void main() { assert(lex("1234")); } In the output re2d replaced the block in the middle with the generated code: /* Generated by re2d */ // re2d $INPUT -o $OUTPUT -i module main; private bool lex(const(char)* yycursor) { { char yych; yych = *yycursor; switch (yych) { case '1': .. case '9': goto yy2; default: goto yy1; } yy1: ++yycursor; { return false; } yy2: yych = *++yycursor; switch (yych) { case '0': .. case '9': goto yy2; default: goto yy3; } yy3: { return true; } } } void main() { assert(lex("1234")); } BASICS A re2d program consists of a sequence of blocks intermixed with code in the target language. A block may contain definitions, configurations, rules, actions and directives in any order: name = regular-expression ; A definition binds name to regular-expression. Names may contain al- phanumeric characters and underscore. The regular expressions sec- tion gives an overview of re2d syntax for regular expressions. Once defined, the name can be used in other regular expressions and in rules. Recursion in named definitions is not allowed, and each name should be defined before it is used. A block inherits named defini- tions from the global scope. Redefining a name that exists in the current scope is an error. configuration = value ; A configuration allows one to change re2d behavior and customize the generated code. For a full list of configurations supported by re2d see the configurations section. Depending on a particular configura- tion, the value can be a keyword, a nonnegative integer number or a one-line string which should be enclosed in double or single quotes unless it consists of alphanumeric characters. A block inherits con- figurations from the global scope and may redefine them or add new ones. Configurations defined inside of a block affect the whole block, even if they appear at the end of it. regular-expression code A rule binds regular-expression to its semantic action (a block of code in curly braces, or a block of code that starts with := and ends on a newline followed by any non-whitespace character). If the regular-expression matches, the associated code is executed. If multiple rules match, the longest match takes precedence. If multi- ple rules match the same string, the earliest one takes precedence. There are two special rules: the default rule * and the end of input rule $. Default rule should always be defined, it has the lowest priority regardless of its place in the block, and it matches any code unit (not necessarily a valid character, see the encoding sup- port section). The end of input rule should be defined if the corre- sponding method for handling the end of input is used. With start conditions rules have more complex syntax. !action code An action binds a user-defined block of code to a particular place in the generated finite state machine (in the same way as semantic actions bind code to the final states). See the actions section for a full list of predefined actions. !directive ; A directive is one of the special predefined statements. Each direc- tive has a unique purpose. See the directives section for details. Blocks Block start and end markers are either /*!re2c and */, or %{ and %} (both styles are supported). Starting from version 2.2 blocks may have optional names that allow them to be referenced in other blocks. There are differ- ent kinds of blocks: /*!re2c[:<name>] ... */ or %{[:<name>] ... %} A global block contains definitions, configurations, rules and di- rectives. re2d compiles regular expressions associated with each rule into a deterministic finite automaton, encodes it in the form of conditional jumps in the target language and replaces the block with the generated code. Names and configurations defined in a global block are added to the global scope and become visible to subsequent blocks. At the start of the program the global scope is initialized with command-line options. /*!local:re2c[:<name>] ... */ or %{local[:<name>] ... %} A local block is like a global block, but the names and configura- tions in it have local scope (they do not affect other blocks). /*!rules:re2c[:<name>] ... */ or %{rules[:<name>] ... %} A rules block is like a local block, but it does not generate any code by itself, nor does it add any definitions to the global scope -- it is meant to be reused in other blocks. This is a way of shar- ing code (more details in the reusable blocks section). Prior to re2d version 2.2 rules blocks required -r --reusable option. /*!use:re2c[:<name>] ... */ or %{use[:<name>] ... %} A use block that references a previously defined rules block. If the name is specified, re2d looks for a rules blocks with this name. Otherwise the most recent rules block is used (either a named or an unnamed one). A use block can add definitions, configurations and rules of its own, which are added to those of the referenced rules block. Prior to re2d version 2.2 use blocks required -r --reusable option. /*!max:re2c[:<name1>[:<name2>...]] ... */ or %{max[:<name1>[:<name2>...]] ... %} A block that generates YYMAXFILL definition. An optional list of block names specifies which blocks should be included when computing YYMAXFILL value (if the list is empty, all blocks are included). By default the generated code is a macro-definition for C (#define YY- MAXFILL <n>), or a global variable for Go (var YYMAXFILL int = <n>). It can be customized with an optional configuration format that specifies a template string where @@{max} (or @@ for short) is re- placed with the numeric value of YYMAXFILL. /*!maxnmatch:re2c[:<name1>[:<name2>...]] ... */ or %{maxn- match[:<name1>[:<name2>...]] ... %} A block that generates YYMAXNMATCH definition (it requires -P --posix-captures option). An optional list of block names specifies which blocks should be included when computing YYMAXNMATCH value (if the list is empty, all blocks are included). By default the gener- ated code is a macro-definition for C (#define YYMAXNMATCH <n>), or a global variable for Go (var YYMAXNMATCH int = <n>). It can be cus- tomized with an optional configuration format that specifies a tem- plate string where @@{max} (or @@ for short) is replaced with the numeric value of YYMAXNMATCH. /*!stags:re2c[:<name1>[:<name2>...]] ... */, /*!mtags:re2c[:<name1>[:<name2>...]] ... */ or %{stags[:<name1>[:<name2>...]] ... %}, %{mtags[:<name1>[:<name2>...]] ... %{ Blocks that specify a template piece of code that is expanded for each s-tag/m-tag variable generated by re2d. An optional list of block names specifies which blocks should be included when computing the set of tag variables (if the list is empty, all blocks are in- cluded). There are two optional configurations: format and separa- tor. Configuration format specifies a template string where @@{tag} (or @@ for short) is replaced with the name of each tag variable. Configuration separator specifies a piece of code used to join the generated format pieces for different tag variables. /*!svars:re2c[:<name1>[:<name2>...]] ... */, /*!mvars:re2c[:<name1>[:<name2>...]] ... */ or %{svars[:<name1>[:<name2>...]] ... %}, %{mvars[:<name1>[:<name2>...]] ... %{ Blocks that specify a template piece of code that is expanded for each s-tag/m-tag that is either explicitly mentioned by the rules (with --tags option) or implicitly generated by re2d (with --capt- vars or --posix-captvars options). An optional list of block names specifies which blocks should be included when computing the set of tags (if the list is empty, all blocks are included). There are two optional configurations: format and separator. Configuration format specifies a template string where @@{tag} (or @@ for short) is re- placed with the name of each tag. Configuration separator specifies a piece of code used to join the generated format pieces for differ- ent tags. /*!getstate:re2c[:<name1>[:<name2>...]] ... */ or %{get- state[:<name1>[:<name2>...]] ... %} A block that generates conditional dispatch on the lexer state (it requires --storable-state option). An optional list of block names specifies which blocks should be included in the state dispatch. The default transition goes to the start label of the first block on the list. If the list is empty, all blocks are included, and the default transition goes to the first block in the file that has a start la- bel. This block type is incompatible with the --loop-switch option, as it requires cross-block transitions that are unsupported without goto or function calls. /*!conditions:re2c[:<name1>[:<name2>...]] ... */, /*!types:re2c... */ or %{conditions[:<name1>[:<name2>...]] ... %}, %{types... %} A block that generates condition enumeration (it requires --condi- tions option). An optional list of block names specifies which blocks should be included when computing the set of conditions (if the list is empty, all blocks are included). By default the gener- ated code is an enumeration YYCONDTYPE. It can be customized with optional configurations format and separator. Configuration format specifies a template string where @@{cond} (or @@ for short) is re- placed with the name of each condition, and @@{num} is replaced with a numeric index of that condition. Configuration separator speci- fies a piece of code used to join the generated format pieces for different conditions. /*!include:re2c <file> */ or %{include <file> %} This block allows one to include <file>, which must be a dou- ble-quoted file path. The contents of the file are literally substi- tuted in place of the block, in the same way as #include works in C/C++. This block can be used together with the --depfile option to generate build system dependencies on the included files. /*!header:re2c:on*/ or %{header:on %} This block marks the start of header file. Everything after it and up to the following header:off block is processed by re2d and writ- ten to the header file specified with -t --type-header option. /*!header:re2c:off*/ or %{header:off %} This block marks the end of header file started with header:on*/ block. /*!ignore:re2c ... */ or %{ignore ... %} A block which contents are ignored and removed from the output file. Configurations Here is a full list of configurations supported by re2d: re2c:api, re2c:input Same as the --api option. re2c:api:sigil Specify the marker ("sigil") that is used for argument placeholders in the API primitives. The default is @@. A placeholder starts with sigil followed by the argument name in curly braces. For example, if sigil is set to $, then placeholders will have the form ${name}. Single-argument APIs may use shorthand notation without the name in braces. This option can be overridden by options for individual API primitives, e.g. re2c:YYFILL@len for YYFILL. re2c:api:style Specify API style. Possible values are functions (the default for C) and free-form (the default for Go and Rust). In functions style API primitives are generated with an argument list in parentheses fol- lowing the name of the primitive. The arguments are provided only for autogenerated parameters (such as the number of characters passed to YYFILL), but not for the general lexer context, so the primitives behave more like macros in C/C++ or closures in Go and Rust. In free-form style API primitives do not have a fixed form: they should be defined as strings containing free-form pieces of code with interpolated variables of the form @@{var} or @@ (they correspond to arguments in function-like style). This configuration may be overridden for individual API primitives, see for example re2c:YYFILL:naked configuration for YYFILL. re2c:bit-vectors, re2c:flags:bit-vectors, re2c:flags:b Same as the --bit-vectors option, but can be configured on per-block basis. re2c:captures, re2c:leftmost-captures Same as the --leftmost-captures option, but can be configured on per-block basis. re2c:captvars, re2c:leftmost-captvars Same as the --leftmost-captvars option, but can be configured on per-block basis. re2c:case-insensitive, re2c:flags:case-insensitive Same as the --case-insensitive option, but can be configured on per-block basis. re2c:case-inverted, re2c:flags:case-inverted Same as the --case-inverted option, but can be configured on per-block basis. re2c:case-ranges, re2c:flags:case-ranges Same as the --case-ranges option, but can be configured on per-block basis. re2c:computed-gotos, re2c:flags:computed-gotos, re2c:flags:g Same as the --computed-gotos option, but can be configured on per-block basis. re2c:computed-gotos:relative, re2c:cgoto:relative Same as the --computed-gotos-relative option, but can be configured on per-block basis. re2c:computed-gotos:threshold, re2c:cgoto:threshold If computed goto is used, this configuration specifies the complex- ity threshold that triggers the generation of jump tables instead of nested if statements and bitmaps. The default value is 9. re2c:cond:abort If set to a positive integer value, the default case in the gener- ated condition dispatch aborts program execution. re2c:cond:goto Specifies a piece of code used for the autogenerated shortcut rules :=> in conditions. The default is goto @@;. The @@ placeholder is substituted with condition name (see configurations re2c:api:sigil and re2c:cond:goto@cond). re2c:cond:goto@cond Specifies the sigil used for argument substitution in re2c:cond:goto definition. The default value is @@. Overrides the more generic re2c:api:sigil configuration. re2c:cond:divider Defines the divider for condition blocks. The default value is /* *********************************** */. Placeholders are substi- tuted with condition name (see re2c:api;sigil and re2c:cond:di- vider@cond). re2c:cond:divider@cond Specifies the sigil used for argument substitution in re2c:cond:di- vider definition. The default is @@. Overrides the more generic re2c:api:sigil configuration. re2c:cond:prefix, re2c:condprefix Specifies the prefix used for condition labels. The default is yyc_. re2c:cond:enumprefix, re2c:condenumprefix Specifies the prefix used for condition identifiers. The default is yyc. re2c:debug-output, re2c:flags:debug-output, re2c:flags:d Same as the --debug-output option, but can be configured on per-block basis. re2c:empty-class, re2c:flags:empty-class Same as the --empty-class option, but can be configured on per-block basis. re2c:encoding:ebcdic, re2c:flags:ecb, re2c:flags:e Same as the --ebcdic option, but can be configured on per-block ba- sis. re2c:encoding:ucs2, re2c:flags:wide-chars, re2c:flags:w Same as the --ucs2 option, but can be configured on per-block basis. re2c:encoding:utf8, re2c:flags:utf-8, re2c:flags:8 Same as the --utf8 option, but can be configured on per-block basis. re2c:encoding:utf16, re2c:flags:utf-16, re2c:flags:x Same as the --utf16 option, but can be configured on per-block ba- sis. re2c:encoding:utf32, re2c:flags:unicode, re2c:flags:u Same as the --utf32 option, but can be configured on per-block ba- sis. re2c:encoding-policy, re2c:flags:encoding-policy Same as the --encoding-policy option, but can be configured on per-block basis. re2c:eof Specifies the sentinel symbol used with the end-of-input rule $. The default value is -1 ($ rule is not used). Other possible values in- clude all valid code units. Only decimal numbers are recognized. re2c:header, re2c:flags:type-header, re2c:flags:t Specifies the name of the generated header file relative to the di- rectory of the output file. Same as the --header option except that the file path is relative. re2c:indent:string Specifies the string used for indentation. The default is a single tab character "\t". Indent string should contain whitespace charac- ters only. To disable indentation entirely, set this configuration to an empty string. re2c:indent:top Specifies the minimum amount of indentation to use. The default value is zero. The value should be a non-negative integer number. re2c:invert-captures Same as the --invert-captures option, but can be configured on per-block basis. re2c:label:prefix, re2c:labelprefix Specifies the prefix used for DFA state labels. The default is yy. re2c:label:start, re2c:startlabel Controls the generation of a block start label. The default value is zero, which means that the start label is generated only if it is used. An integer value greater than zero forces the generation of start label even if it is unused by the lexer. A string value also forces start label generation and sets the label name to the speci- fied string. This configuration applies only to the current block (it is reset to default for the next block). re2c:label:yyFillLabel Specifies the prefix of YYFILL labels used with re2c:eof and in storable state mode. re2c:label:yyloop Specifies the name of the label marking the start of the lexer loop with --loop-switch option. The default is yyloop. re2c:label:yyNext Specifies the name of the optional label that follows YYGETSTATE switch in storable state mode (enabled with re2c:state:nextlabel). The default is yyNext. re2c:lookahead, re2c:flags:lookahead Deprecated (see the deprecated --no-lookahead option). re2c:monadic If set to non-zero, the generated lexer will use monadic notation (this configuration is specific to Haskell). re2c:nested-ifs, re2c:flags:nested-ifs, re2c:flags:s Same as the --nested-ifs option, but can be configured on per-block basis. re2c:posix-captures, re2c:flags:posix-captures, re2c:flags:P Same as the --posix-captures option, but can be configured on per-block basis. re2c:posix-captvars Same as the --posix-captvars option, but can be configured on per-block basis. re2c:tags, re2c:flags:tags, re2c:flags:T Same as the --tags option, but can be configured on per-block basis. re2c:tags:expression Specifies the expression used for tag variables. By default re2d generates expressions of the form yyt<N>. This might be inconve- nient, for example if tag variables are defined as fields in a struct. All occurrences of @@{tag} or @@ are replaced with the ac- tual tag name. For example, re2c:tags:expression = "s.@@"; results in expressions of the form s.yyt<N> in the generated code. See also re2c:api:sigil configuration. re2c:tags:negative Specifies the constant expression that is used for negative tag value (typically this would be -1 if tags are integer offsets in the input string, or null pointer if they are pointers). re2c:tags:prefix Specifies the prefix for tag variable names. The default is yyt. re2c:sentinel Specifies the sentinel symbol used for the end-of-input checks (when bounds checks are disabled with re2c:yyfill:enable = 0; and re2c:eof is not set). This configuration does not affect code generation: its purpose is to verify that the sentinel is not allowed in the middle of a rule, and ensure that the lexer won't read past the end of buffer. The default value is -1` (in that case re2d assumes that the sentinel is zero, which is the most common case). Only decimal num- bers are recognized. re2c:state:abort If set to a positive integer value, the default case in the gener- ated state dispatch aborts program execution, and an explicit -1 case contains transition to the start of the block. re2c:state:nextlabel Controls if the YYGETSTATE switch is followed by an yyNext label (the default value is zero, which corresponds to no label). Alter- natively one can use re2c:label:start to generate a specific start label, or an explicit getstate block to generate the YYGETSTATE switch separately from the lexer block. re2c:unsafe, re2c:flags:unsafe Same as the --no-unsafe option, but can be configured on per-block basis. If set to zero, it suppresses the generation of unsafe wrap- pers around YYPEEK. The default is non-zero (wrappers are gener- ated). This configuration is specific to Rust. re2c:YYBACKUP, re2c:define:YYBACKUP Defines generic API primitive YYBACKUP. re2c:YYBACKUPCTX, re2c:define:YYBACKUPCTX Defines generic API primitive YYBACKUPCTX. re2c:YYCONDTYPE, re2c:define:YYCONDTYPE Defines API primitive YYCONDTYPE. re2c:YYCTYPE, re2c:define:YYCTYPE Defines API primitive YYCTYPE. re2c:YYCTXMARKER, re2c:define:YYCTXMARKER Defines API primitive YYCTXMARKER. re2c:YYCURSOR, re2c:define:YYCURSOR Defines API primitive YYCURSOR. re2c:YYDEBUG, re2c:define:YYDEBUG Defines API primitive YYDEBUG. re2c:YYFILL, re2c:define:YYFILL Defines API primitive YYFILL. re2c:YYFILL@len, re2c:define:YYFILL@len Specifies the sigil used for argument substitution in YYFILL defini- tion. Defaults to @@. Overrides the more generic re2c:api:sigil configuration. re2c:YYFILL:naked, re2c:define:YYFILL:naked Overrides the more generic re2c:api:style configuration for YYFILL. Zero value corresponds to free-form API style. re2c:YYFN Defines API primitive YYFN. re2c:YYINPUT Defines API primitive YYINPUT. re2c:YYGETCOND, re2c:define:YYGETCONDITION Defines API primitive YYGETCOND. re2c:YYGETCOND:naked, re2c:define:YYGETCONDITION:naked Overrides the more generic re2c:api:style configuration for YYGET- COND. Zero value corresponds to free-form API style. re2c:YYGETSTATE, re2c:define:YYGETSTATE Defines API primitive YYGETSTATE. re2c:YYGETSTATE:naked, re2c:define:YYGETSTATE:naked Overrides the more generic re2c:api:style configuration for YYGET- STATE. Zero value corresponds to free-form API style. re2c:YYGETACCEPT, re2c:define:YYGETACCEPT Defines API primitive YYGETACCEPT. re2c:YYLESSTHAN, re2c:define:YYLESSTHAN Defines generic API primitive YYLESSTHAN. re2c:YYLIMIT, re2c:define:YYLIMIT Defines API primitive YYLIMIT. re2c:YYMARKER, re2c:define:YYMARKER Defines API primitive YYMARKER. re2c:YYMTAGN, re2c:define:YYMTAGN Defines generic API primitive YYMTAGN. re2c:YYMTAGP, re2c:define:YYMTAGP Defines generic API primitive YYMTAGP. re2c:YYPEEK, re2c:define:YYPEEK Defines generic API primitive YYPEEK. re2c:YYRESTORE, re2c:define:YYRESTORE Defines generic API primitive YYRESTORE. re2c:YYRESTORECTX, re2c:define:YYRESTORECTX Defines generic API primitive YYRESTORECTX. re2c:YYRESTORETAG, re2c:define:YYRESTORETAG Defines generic API primitive YYRESTORETAG. re2c:YYSETCOND, re2c:define:YYSETCONDITION Defines API primitive YYSETCOND. re2c:YYSETCOND@cond, re2c:define:YYSETCONDITION@cond Specifies the sigil used for argument substitution in YYSETCOND def- inition. The default value is @@. Overrides the more generic re2c:api:sigil configuration. re2c:YYSETCOND:naked, re2c:define:YYSETCONDITION:naked Overrides the more generic re2c:api:style configuration for YYSET- COND. Zero value corresponds to free-form API style. re2c:YYSETSTATE, re2c:define:YYSETSTATE Defines API primitive YYSETSTATE. re2c:YYSETSTATE@state, re2c:define:YYSETSTATE@state Specifies the sigil used for argument substitution in YYSETSTATE de- finition. The default value is @@. Overrides the more generic re2c:api:sigil configuration. re2c:YYSETSTATE:naked, re2c:define:YYSETSTATE:naked Overrides the more generic re2c:api:style configuration for YYSET- STATE. Zero value corresponds to free-form API style. re2c:YYSETACCEPT, re2c:define:YYSETACCEPT Defines API primitive YYSETACCEPT. re2c:YYSKIP, re2c:define:YYSKIP Defines generic API primitive YYSKIP. re2c:YYSHIFT, re2c:define:YYSHIFT Defines generic API primitive YYSHIFT. re2c:YYCOPYMTAG, re2c:define:YYCOPYMTAG Defines generic API primitive YYCOPYMTAG. re2c:YYCOPYSTAG, re2c:define:YYCOPYSTAG Defines generic API primitive YYCOPYSTAG. re2c:YYSHIFTMTAG, re2c:define:YYSHIFTMTAG Defines generic API primitive YYSHIFTMTAG. re2c:YYSHIFTSTAG, re2c:define:YYSHIFTSTAG Defines generic API primitive YYSHIFTSTAG. re2c:YYSTAGN, re2c:define:YYSTAGN Defines generic API primitive YYSTAGN. re2c:YYSTAGP, re2c:define:YYSTAGP Defines generic API primitive YYSTAGP. re2c:yyaccept, re2c:variable:yyaccept Defines API primitive yyaccept. re2c:yybm, re2c:variable:yybm Defines API primitive yybm. re2c:yybm:hex, re2c:variable:yybm:hex If set to nonzero, bitmaps for the --bit-vectors option are gener- ated in hexadecimal format. The default is zero (bitmaps are in dec- imal format). re2c:yych, re2c:variable:yych Defines API primitive yych. re2c:yych:emit, re2c:variable:yych:emit If set to zero, yych definition is not generated. The default is non-zero. re2c:yych:conversion, re2c:variable:yych:conversion If set to non-zero, re2d automatically generates a conversion to YYCTYPE every time yych is read. The default is to zero (no conver- sion). re2c:yych:literals, re2c:variable:yych:literals Specifies the form of literals that yych is matched against. Possi- ble values are: char (character literals in single quotes, non-printable ones use escape sequences that start with backslash), hex (hexadecimal integers) and char_or_hex (a mixture of both, char- acter literals for printable characters and hexadecimal integers for others). re2c:yyctable, re2c:variable:yyctable Defines API primitive yyctable. re2c:yynmatch, re2c:variable:yynmatch Defines API primitive yynmatch. re2c:yypmatch, re2c:variable:yypmatch Defines API primitive yypmatch. re2c:yytarget, re2c:variable:yytarget Defines API primitive yytarget. re2c:yystable, re2c:variable:yystable Deprecated. re2c:yystate, re2c:variable:yystate Defines API primitive yystate. re2c:yyfill, re2c:variable:yyfill Defines API primitive yyfill. re2c:yyfill:check If set to zero, suppresses the generation of pre-YYFILL check for the number of input characters (the YYLESSTHAN definition in generic API and the YYLIMIT-based comparison in C pointer API). The default is non-zero (generate the check). re2c:yyfill:enable If set to zero, suppresses the generation of YYFILL (together with the check). This should be used when the whole input fits into one piece of memory (there is no need for buffering) and the end-of-in- put checks do not rely on the YYFILL checks (e.g. if a sentinel character is used). Use warnings (-W option) and re2c:sentinel con- figuration to verify that the generated lexer cannot read past the end of input. The default is non-zero (YYFILL is enabled). re2c:yyfill:parameter If set to zero, suppresses the generation of parameter passed to YY- FILL. The parameter is the minimum number of characters that must be supplied. Defaults to non-zero (the parameter is generated). This configuration can be overridden with re2c:YYFILL:naked or re2c:api:style. re2c:yyfn:sep Specifies separator used in YYFN elements (defaults to semicolon). re2c:yyfn:throw Specifies exceptions thrown by YYFN function (defaults to empty, which means no exceptions). Regular expressions re2d uses the following syntax for regular expressions: "foo" Case-sensitive string literal. 'foo' Case-insensitive string literal. [a-xyz], [^a-xyz] Character class (possibly negated). . Any character except newline. R \ S Difference of character classes R and S. R* Zero or more occurrences of R. R+ One or more occurrences of R. R? Optional R. R{n} Repetition of R exactly n times. R{n,} Repetition of R at least n times. R{n,m} Repetition of R from n to m times. (R) Just R; parentheses are used to override precedence. If submatch ex- traction is enabled, (R) is a capturing or a non-capturing group de- pending on --invert-captures option. (!R) If submatch extraction is enabled, (!R) is a non-capturing or a cap- turing group depending on --invert-captures option. R S Concatenation: R followed by S. R | S Alternative: R or S. R / S Lookahead: R followed by S, but S is not consumed. name Regular expression defined as name (or literal string "name" in Flex compatibility mode). {name} Regular expression defined as name in Flex compatibility mode. @stag An s-tag: saves the last input position at which @stag matches in a variable named stag. #mtag An m-tag: saves all input positions at which #mtag matches in a variable named mtag. $ End of input. Character classes and string literals may contain the following escape se- quences: \a, \b, \f, \n, \r, \t, \v, \\, octal escapes \ooo and hexadecimal escapes \xhh, \uhhhh and \Uhhhhhhhh. Actions Here is a list of predefined actions supported by re2d: !entry code Entry action binds a user-defined block of code to the start state of the current finite state machine. If start conditions are used, the entry action can be set individually for each condition. This action may be used to perform initialization, e.g. to save start lo- cation of a lexeme. !pre_rule code Pre-rule action prepends a user-defined block of code to semantic actions of all rules in the current block (or condition, if start conditions are used). This action may be used to factor out the com- mon part of all semantic actions (e.g. saving the end location of a lexeme). !post_rule code Post-rule action appends a user-defined block of code to semantic actions of all rules in the current block (or condition, if start conditions are used). This action may be used to emit trap state- ments that guard against unintended control flow. Directives Here is a full list of directives supported by re2d: !use:name ; An in-block use directive that merges a previously defined rules block with the specified name into the current block. Named defini- tions, configurations and rules of the referenced block are added to the current ones. Conflicts between overlapping rules and configura- tions are resolved in the usual way: the first rule takes priority, and the latest configuration overrides the preceding ones. One ex- ception is the special rules *, $ and <!> for which a block-local definition always takes priority. A use directive can be placed any- where inside of a block, and multiple use directives are allowed. !include file ; This directive is the same as include block: it inserts file con- tents verbatim in place of the directive. Program interface The generated code interfaces with the outer program with the help of prim- itives, collectively referred to as the API. Which primitives should be defined for a particular program depends on multiple factors, including the complexity of regular expressions, input representation, buffering and the use of various features. All the necessary primitives should be defined by the user in the form of macros, functions, variables or any other suitable form that makes the generated code syntactically and semantically correct. re2d does not (and cannot) check the definitions, so if anything is missing or defined incorrectly, the generated program may have compile-time or run-time errors. This manual provides examples of API definitions in the most common cases. re2d has three API flavors that define the core set of primitives used by a program: Simple API This is the default API for D backend. It consists of primitives YY- CURSOR, YYMARKER, YYCTXMARKER and YYLIMIT, which should be defined as pointers of type YYCTYPE*. Record API Record API is useful in cases when lexer state must be stored in a struct. It is enabled with --api record option or re2c:api = record configuration. This API consists of a variable yyrecord (the name can be overridden with re2c:yyrecord) that should be defined as a struct with fields yycursor, yymarker, yyctxmarker, yylimit (only the fields used by the generated code need to be defined, and their names can be configured). Generic API This is the most flexible API. It is enabled with --api generic op- tion or re2c:api = generic configuration. It contains primitives for generic operations: YYPEEK, YYSKIP, YYBACKUP, YYBACKUPCTX, YYS- TAGP, YYSTAGN, YYMTAGP, YYMTAGN, YYRESTORE, YYRESTORECTX, YYRESTORE- TAG, YYSHIFT, YYSHIFTSTAG, YYSHIFTMTAG, YYLESSTHAN, YYEND. Here is a full list of API primitives that may be used by the generated code in order to interface with the outer program. YYCTYPE The type of the input characters (code units). For ASCII, EBCDIC and UTF-8 encodings it should be 1-byte unsigned integer. For UTF-16 or UCS-2 it should be 2-byte unsigned integer. For UTF-32 it should be 4-byte unsigned integer. YYCURSOR An l-value that stores the current input position (a pointer or an integer offset in YYINPUT). Initially YYCURSOR should point to the first input character, and later it is advanced by the generated code. When a rule matches, YYCURSOR position is the one after the last matched character. YYLIMIT An r-value that stores the end of input position (a pointer or an integer offset in YYINPUT). Initially YYLIMIT should point to the position after the last available input character. It is not changed by the generated code. The lexer compares YYCURSOR to YYLIMIT in or- der to determine if there are enough input characters left. YYMARKER An l-value that stores the position of the latest matched rule (a pointer or an integer offset in YYINPUT). It is used to restore the YYCURSOR position if the longer match fails and the lexer needs to rollback. Initialization is not needed. YYCTXMARKER An l-value that stores the position of the trailing context (a pointer or an integer offset in YYINPUT). No initialization is needed. YYCTXMARKER is needed only if the lookahead operator / is used. YYFILL A generic API primitive with one variable len. YYFILL should pro- vide at least len more input characters or fail. If re2c:eof is used, then len is always 1 and YYFILL should always return to the calling function; zero return value indicates success. If re2c:eof is not used, then YYFILL return value is ignored and it should not return on failure. The maximum value of len is YYMAXFILL. YYFN A primitive that defines function prototype in --recursive-functions code model. Its value should be an array of one or more strings, where each string contains two or three components separated by the string specified in re2c:fn:sep configuration (typically a semi- colon). The first array element defines function name and return type (empty for a void function). Subsequent elements define func- tion arguments: first, the expression for the argument used in func- tion body (usually just a name); second, argument type; third, an optional formal parameter (it defaults to the first component - usu- ally both the argument and the parameter are the same identifier). YYINPUT An r-value that stores the current input character sequence (string, buffer, etc.). YYMAXFILL An integral constant equal to the maximum value of the argument to YYFILL. It can be generated with a max block. YYLESSTHAN A generic API primitive with one variable len. It should be defined as an r-value of boolean type that equals true if and only if there are less than len input characters left. YYEND A generic API primitive with no variables. It should be defined as an r-value of boolean type that equals true if and only if the logi- cal end of input has been reached (excluding any padding or sentinel symbols). YYEND is used to implement $ symbol in regular expres- sions. It differs from YYLESSTHAN, which is used to ensure that the lexer won't read past the end of buffer. YYPEEK A generic API primitive with no variables. It should be defined as an r-value of type YYCTYPE that is equal to the character at the current input position. YYSKIP A generic API primitive that should advance the current input posi- tion by one code unit. YYBACKUP A generic API primitive that should save the current input position (to be restored with YYRESTORE later). YYRESTORE A generic API primitive that should restore the current input posi- tion to the value saved by YYBACKUP. YYBACKUPCTX A generic API primitive that should save the current input position as the position of the trailing context (to be restored with YYRE- STORECTX later). YYRESTORECTX A generic API primitive that should restore the trailing context po- sition saved with YYBACKUPCTX. YYRESTORETAG A generic API primitive with one variable tag that should restore the trailing context position to the value of tag. YYSTAGP A generic API primitive with one variable tag, where tag can be a pointer or an offset in YYINPUT (see submatch extraction section for details). YYSTAGP should set tag to the current input position. YYSTAGN A generic API primitive with one variable tag, where tag can be a pointer or an offset in YYINPUT (see submatch extraction section for details). YYSTAGN should to set tag to a value that represents non-existent input position. YYMTAGP A generic API primitive with one variable tag. YYMTAGP should ap- pend the current position to the submatch history of tag (see the submatch extraction section for details.) YYMTAGN A generic API primitive with one variable tag. YYMTAGN should ap- pend a value that represents non-existent input position position to the submatch history of tag (see the submatch extraction section for details.) YYSHIFT A generic API primitive with one variable shift that should shift the current input position by shift characters (the shift value may be negative). YYCOPYSTAG A generic API primitive with two variables, lhs and rhs that should copy right-hand-side s-tag variable rhs to the left-hand-side s-tag variable lhs. For most languages this primitive has a default defin- ition that assigns lhs to rhs. YYCOPYMTAG A generic API primitive with two variables, lhs and rhs that should copy right-hand-side m-tag variable rhs to the left-hand-side m-tag variable lhs. For most languages this primitive has a default defin- ition that assigns lhs to rhs. YYSHIFTSTAG A generic API primitive with two variables, tag and shift that should shift tag by shift code units (the shift value may be nega- tive). YYSHIFTMTAG A generic API primitive with two variables, tag and shift that should shift the latest value in the history of tag by shift code units (the shift value may be negative). YYMAXNMATCH An integral constant equal to the maximal number of POSIX capturing groups in a rule. It is generated with a maxnmatch block. YYCONDTYPE The type of the condition enum. It can be generated either with conditions block or --header option. YYGETACCEPT A primitive with one variable var that stores numeric selector of the accepted rule. For most languages this primitive has a default definition that reads from var. YYSETACCEPT A primitive with two variables: var (an l-value that stores numeric selector of the accepted rule), and val (the value of selector). For most languages this primitive has a default definition that assigns var to val. YYGETCOND An r-value of type YYCONDTYPE that is equal to the current condition identifier. YYSETCOND A primitive with one variable cond that should set the current con- dition identifier to cond. YYGETSTATE An r-value of integer type that is equal to the current lexer state. It should be initialized to -1. YYSETSTATE A primitive with one variable state that should set the current lexer state to state. YYDEBUG This primitive is generated only with -d, --debug-output option. Its purpose is to add logging to the generated code (typical YYDEBUG definition is a print statement). YYDEBUG statements are generated in every state and have two variables: state (either a DFA state in- dex or -1) and symbol (the current input symbol). yyaccept An l-value of unsigned integral type that stores the number of the latest matched rule. User definition is necessary only with --stor- able-state option. yybm A table containing compressed bitmaps for up to 8 transitions (used with the --bitmaps option). The table contains 256 elements and is indexed by 1-byte code units. Each 8-bit element combines boolean values for up to 8 transitions. k-Th bit of n-th element is true iff n-th code unit is in the range of k-th transition. The idea of this bitmap is to replace many if branches or switch cases with one check of a single bit in the table. yych An l-value of type YYCTYPE that stores the current input character. User definition is necessary only with -f --storable-state option. yyctable Jump table generated for the initial condition dispatch (enabled with the combination of --conditions and --computed-gotos options). yyfill An l-value that stores the result of YYFILL call (this may be neces- sary for pure functional languages, where YYFILL is a monadic func- tion with complex return value). yynmatch An l-value of unsigned integral type that stores the number of POSIX capturing groups in the matched rule. Used only with -P --posix-captures option. yypmatch An array of l-values that are used to hold the tag values corre- sponding to the capturing parentheses in the matching rule. Array length must be at least yynmatch * 2 (usually YYMAXNMATCH * 2 is a good choice). Used only with -P --posix-captures option. yystable Deprecated. yystate An l-value used with the --loop-switch option to store the current DFA state. yytarget Jump table that contains jump targets (label addresses) for all transitions from a state. This table is local to each state. Genera- tion of yytarget tables is enabled with --computed-gotos option. Options Some of the options have corresponding configurations, others are global and cannot be changed after re2c starts reading the input file. Debug op- tions generally require building re2c in debug configuration. Internal op- tions are useful for experimenting with the algorithms used in re2c. -? --help -h Show help message. --api <simple | record | generic> Specify the API used by the generated code to interface with used-defined code. Option simple should be used in simple cases when there's no need for buffer refilling and storing lexer state. Option record should be used when lexer state needs to be stored in a record (struct, class, etc.). Option generic should be used in com- plex cases when the other two APIs are not flexible enough. --bit-vectors -b Optimize conditional jumps using bit masks. This option implies --nested-ifs. --captures, --leftmost-captures Enable submatch extraction with leftmost greedy capturing groups. The result is collected into an array yybmatch of capacity 2 * YY- MAXNMATCH, and yynmatch is set to the number of groups for the matching rule. --captvars, --leftmost-captvars Enable submatch extraction with leftmost greedy capturing groups. The result is collected into variables yytl<k>, yytr<k> for k-th capturing group. --case-insensitive Treat single-quoted and double-quoted strings as case-insensitive. --case-inverted Invert the meaning of single-quoted and double-quoted strings: treat single-quoted strings as case-sensitive and double-quoted strings as case-insensitive. --case-ranges Collapse consecutive cases in a switch statements into a range of the form low ... high. This syntax is a C/C++ language extension that is supported by compilers like GCC, Clang and Tcc. The main ad- vantage over using single cases is smaller generated code and faster generation time, although for some compilers like Tcc it also re- sults in smaller binary size. --computed-gotos -g Optimize conditional jumps using non-standard "computed goto" exten- sion (which must be supported by the compiler). re2d generates jump tables only in complex cases with a lot of conditional branches. Complexity threshold can be configured with cgoto:threshold configu- ration. Relative offsets can be enabled with cgoto:relative config- uration. This option implies --bit-vectors. --computed-gotos-relative Similar to --computed-gotos but generate relative offsets for jump tables instead (which must be supported by the compiler). This op- tion implies --computed-gotos. --conditions --start-conditions -c Enable support of Flex-like "conditions": multiple interrelated lex- ers within one block. This is an alternative to manually specifying different re2d blocks connected with goto or function calls. --depfile FILE Write dependency information to FILE in the form of a Makefile rule <output-file> : <input-file> [include-file ...]. This allows one to track build dependencies in the presence of include blocks/direc- tives, so that updating include files triggers regeneration of the output file. This option depends on the --output option. --ebcdic --ecb -e Generate a lexer that reads input in EBCDIC encoding. re2d assumes that the character range is 0 -- 0xFF and character size is 1 byte. --empty-class <match-empty | match-none | error> Define the way re2d treats empty character classes. With match-empty (the default) empty class matches empty input (which is illogical, but backwards-compatible). With match-none empty class always fails to match. With error empty class raises a compilation error. --encoding-policy <fail | substitute | ignore> Define the way re2d treats Unicode surrogates. With fail re2d aborts with an error when a surrogate is encountered. With substi- tute re2d silently replaces surrogates with the error code point 0xFFFD. With ignore (the default) re2d treats surrogates as normal code points. The Unicode standard says that standalone surrogates are invalid, but real-world libraries and programs behave in differ- ent ways. --flex-syntax -F Partial support for Flex syntax: in this mode named definitions don't need the equal sign and the terminating semicolon, and when used they must be surrounded with curly braces. Names without curly braces are treated as double-quoted strings. --goto-label Use "goto/label" code model: encode DFA in form of labeled code blocks connected with goto transitions across blocks. This is only supported for languages that have a goto statement. --header --type-header -t HEADER Generate a HEADER file. The contents of the file can be specified using special blocks header:on and header:off. If conditions are used, the generated header will have a condition enum automatically appended to it (unless there is an explicit conditions block). -I PATH Add PATH to the list of locations which are used when searching for include files. This option is useful in combination with include block or directive. re2d looks for FILE in the directory of the par- ent file and in the include locations specified with -I option. --input <default | custom> Deprecated alias for --api. Option default corresponds to simple (it is indeed the default for most backends, but not for all). Option custom corresponds to generic. --input-encoding <ascii | utf8> Specify the way re2d parses regular expressions. With ascii (the default) re2d handles input as ASCII-encoded: any sequence of code units is a sequence of standalone 1-byte characters. With utf8 re2d handles input as UTF8-encoded and recognizes multibyte characters. --invert-captures Invert the meaning of capturing and non-capturing groups. By default (...) is capturing and (! ...) is non-capturing. With this option (! ...) is capturing and (...) is non-capturing. --lang <none | c | d | go | haskell | java | js | ocaml | python | rust | swift | v | zig> Specify the target language. Supported languages are C, D, Go, Haskell, Java, JS, OCaml, Python, Rust, Swift, V, Zig (more lan- guages can be added via user-defined syntax files, see the --syntax option). Option none disables default suntax configs, so that the target language is undefined. --location-format <gnu | msvc> Specify location format in messages. With gnu locations are printed as 'filename:line:column: ...'. With msvc locations are printed as 'filename(line,column) ...'. The default is gnu. --loop-switch Use "loop/switch" code model: encode DFA in form of a loop over a switch statement, where individual states are switch cases. State is stored in a variable yystate. Transitions between states update yys- tate to the case label of the destination state and continue execu- tion to the head of the loop. --nested-ifs -s Use nested if statements instead of switch statements in conditional jumps. This usually results in more efficient code with non-optimiz- ing compilers. --no-debug-info -i Do not output line directives. This may be useful when the generated code is stored in a version control system (to avoid huge autogener- ated diffs on small changes). --no-generation-date Suppress date output in the generated file. --no-version Suppress version output in the generated file. --no-unsafe Do not generate unsafe wrapper over YYPEEK (this option is specific to Rust). For performance reasons YYPEEK should avoid bounds-check- ing, as the lexer already performs end-of-input checks in a more ef- ficient way. The user may choose to provide a safe YYPEEK defini- tion, or a definition that is unsafe only in release builds, in which case the --no-unsafe option helps to avoid warnings about re- dundant unsafe blocks. --output -o OUTPUT Specify the OUTPUT file. --posix-captures, -P Enable submatch extraction with POSIX-style capturing groups. The result is collected into an array yybmatch of capacity 2 * YYMAXN- MATCH, and yynmatch is set to the number of groups for the matching rule. --posix-captvars Enable submatch extraction with POSIX-style capturing groups. The result is collected into variables yytl<k>, yytr<k> for k-th captur- ing group. --recursive-functions Use code model based on co-recursive functions, where each DFA state is a separate function that may call other state-functions or it- self. --reusable -r Deprecated since version 2.2 (reusable blocks are allowed by default now). --skeleton -S Ignore user-defined interface code and generate a self-contained "skeleton" program. Additionally, generate input files with strings derived from the regular grammar and compressed match results that are used to verify "skeleton" behavior on all inputs. This option is useful for finding bugs in optimizations and code generation. This option is supported only for C. --storable-state -f Generate a lexer which can store its inner state. This is useful in push-model lexers which are stopped by an outer program when there is not enough input, and then resumed when more input becomes avail- able. In this mode users should additionally define YYGETSTATE and YYSETSTATE primitives, and variables yych, yyaccept and state should be part of the stored lexer state. --syntax FILE Load configurations from the specified FILE and apply them on top of the default syntax file. Note that FILE can define only a few con- figurations (if it's used to amend the default syntax file), or it can define a whole new language backend (in the latter case it is recommended to use --lang none option). --tags -T Enable submatch extraction with tags. --ucs2 --wide-chars -w Generate a lexer that reads UCS2-encoded input. re2d assumes that the character range is 0 -- 0xFFFF and character size is 2 bytes. This option implies --nested-ifs. --utf8 --utf-8 -8 Generate a lexer that reads input in UTF-8 encoding. re2d assumes that the character range is 0 -- 0x10FFFF and character size is 1 byte. --utf16 --utf-16 -x Generate a lexer that reads UTF16-encoded input. re2d assumes that the character range is 0 -- 0x10FFFF and character size is 2 bytes. This option implies --nested-ifs. --utf32 --unicode -u Generate a lexer that reads UTF32-encoded input. re2d assumes that the character range is 0 -- 0x10FFFF and character size is 4 bytes. This option implies --nested-ifs. --verbose Output a short message in case of success. --vernum -V Show version information in MMmmpp format (major, minor, patch). --version -v Show version information. --single-pass -1 Deprecated. Does nothing (single pass is the default now). --debug-output -d Emit YYDEBUG invocations in the generated code. This is useful to trace lexer execution. --dump-adfa Debug option: output DFA after tunneling (in .dot format). --dump-cfg Debug option: output control flow graph of tag variables (in .dot format). --dump-closure-stats Debug option: output statistics on the number of states in closure. --dump-dfa-det Debug option: output DFA immediately after determinization (in .dot format). --dump-dfa-min Debug option: output DFA after minimization (in .dot format). --dump-dfa-tagopt Debug option: output DFA after tag optimizations (in .dot format). --dump-dfa-tree Debug option: output DFA under construction with states represented as tag history trees (in .dot format). --dump-dfa-raw Debug option: output DFA under construction with expanded state-sets (in .dot format). --dump-interf Debug option: output interference table produced by liveness analy- sis of tag variables. --dump-nfa Debug option: output NFA (in .dot format). --emit-dot -D Instead of normal output generate lexer graph in .dot format. The output can be converted to an image with the help of Graphviz (e.g. something like dot -Tpng -odfa.png dfa.dot). --dfa-minimization <moore | table> Internal option: DFA minimization algorithm used by re2d. The moore option is the Moore algorithm (it is the default). The table option is the "table filling" algorithm. Both algorithms should produce the same DFA up to states relabeling; table filling is simpler and much slower and serves as a reference implementation. --eager-skip Internal option: make the generated lexer advance the input position eagerly -- immediately after reading the input symbol. This changes the default behavior when the input position is advanced lazily -- after transition to the next state. --no-lookahead Internal option, deprecated. It used to enable TDFA(0) algorithm. Unlike TDFA(1), TDFA(0) algorithm does not use one-symbol lookahead. It applies register operations to the incoming transitions rather than the outgoing ones. Benchmarks showed that TDFA(0) algorithm is less efficient than TDFA(1). --no-optimize-tags Internal option: suppress optimization of tag variables (useful for debugging). --posix-closure <gor1 | gtop> Internal option: specify shortest-path algorithm used for the con- struction of epsilon-closure with POSIX disambiguation semantics: gor1 (the default) stands for Goldberg-Radzik algorithm, and gtop stands for "global topological order" algorithm. --posix-prectable <complex | naive> Internal option: specify the algorithm used to compute POSIX prece- dence table. The complex algorithm computes precedence table in one traversal of tag history tree and has quadratic complexity in the number of TNFA states; it is the default. The naive algorithm has worst-case cubic complexity in the number of TNFA states, but it is much simpler than complex and may be slightly faster in non-patho- logical cases. --stadfa Internal option, deprecated. It used to enable staDFA algorithm, which differs from TDFA in that register operations are placed in states rather than on transitions. Benchmarks showed that staDFA al- gorithm is less efficient than TDFA. --fixed-tags <none | toplevel | all> Internal option: specify whether the fixed-tag optimization should be applied to all tags (all), none of them (none), or only those in toplevel concatenation (toplevel). The default is all. "Fixed" tags are those that are located within a fixed distance to some other tag (called "base"). In such cases only the base tag needs to be tracked, and the value of the fixed tag can be computed as the value of the base tag plus a static offset. For tags that are under alter- native or repetition it is also necessary to check if the base tag has a no-match value (in that case fixed tag should also be set to no-match, disregarding the offset). For tags in top-level concatena- tion the check is not needed, because they always match. Warnings Warnings can be invividually enabled, disabled and turned into an error. -W Turn on all warnings. -Werror Turn warnings into errors. Note that this option alone doesn't turn on any warnings; it only affects those warnings that have been turned on so far or will be turned on later. -W<warning> Turn on warning. -Wno-<warning> Turn off warning. -Werror-<warning> Turn on warning and treat it as an error (this implies -W<warning>). -Wno-error-<warning> Don't treat this particular warning as an error. This doesn't turn off the warning itself. -Wcondition-order Warn if the generated program makes implicit assumptions about con- dition numbering. One should use either --header option or condi- tions block to generate a mapping of condition names to numbers and then use the autogenerated condition names. -Wempty-character-class Warn if a regular expression contains an empty character class. Try- ing to match an empty character class makes no sense: it should al- ways fail. However, for backwards compatibility reasons re2d per- mits empty character classes and treats them as empty strings. Use the --empty-class option to change the default behavior. -Wmatch-empty-string Warn if a rule is nullable (matches an empty string). If the lexer runs in a loop and the empty match is unintentional, the lexer may unexpectedly hang in an infinite loop. -Wswapped-range Warn if the lower bound of a range is greater than its upper bound. The default behavior is to silently swap the range bounds. -Wundefined-control-flow Warn if some input strings cause undefined control flow in the lexer (the faulty patterns are reported). This is a dangerous and common mistake. It can be easily fixed by adding the default rule * which has the lowest priority, matches any code unit, and always consumes a single code unit. -Wunreachable-rules Warn about rules that are shadowed by other rules and will never match. -Wdeprecated-eof_rule Warn about standalone end of input rules $ that will be broken by the future changes and require fixing. At the moment these rules take precedence when conflicting with other rules, but after the in- troduction of generalized end of input symbol $ precedence order will change and these rules will become shadowed by other rules. -Wuseless-escape Warn if a symbol is escaped when it shouldn't be. By default, re2d silently ignores such escapes, but this may as well indicate a typo or an error in the escape sequence. -Wnondeterministic-tags Warn if a tag has n-th degree of nondeterminism, where n is greater than 1. -Wsentinel-in-midrule Warn if the sentinel symbol occurs in the middle of a rule --- this may cause reads past the end of buffer, crashes or memory corruption in the generated lexer. This warning is only applicable if the sen- tinel method of checking for the end of input is used. It is set to an error if re2c:sentinel configuration is used. -Wundefined-syntax-config Warn if the syntax file specified with --syntax option is missing definitions of some configurations. This helps to maintain user-de- fined syntax files: if a new release adds configurations, old syntax file will raise a warning, and the user will be notified. If some configurations are unused and do not need a definition, they should be explicitly set to <undefined>. Syntax files Support for different languages in re2c is based on the idea of syntax files. A syntax file is a configuration file that defines syntax of the target language -- not the whole language, but a small part of it that is used by the generated code. Syntax files make re2c very flexible, but they should not be used as a replacement for re2c: configurations: their purpose is to define syntax of the target language, not to customize one particular lexer. All supported languages have default syntax files that are part of the distribution (see include/syntax subdirectory); they are also embedded in the re2d binary. Users may provide a custom syntax file that overrides a few configurations for one of supported languages, or they may choose to redefine all configurations (in that case --lang none option should be used). Syntax files contain configurations of four different kinds: fea- ture lists, language configurations, inplace configurations and code tem- plates. Feature lists A few list configurations define various features supported by a given backend, so that re2d may give a clear error if the user tries to enable an unsupported feature: supported_apis A list of supported APIs with possible elements simple, record, generic. supported_api_styles A list of supported API styles with possible elements functions, free-form. supported_code_models A list of supported code models with possible elements goto-la- bel, loop-switch, recursive-functions. supported_targets A list of supported codegen targets with possible elements code, dot, skeleton. supported_features A list of supported features with possible elements nested-ifs, bitmaps, computed-gotos, case-ranges, monadic, unsafe, tags, cap- tures, captvars. Language configurations A few boolean configurations describe features of the target language that affect re2d parser and code generator: semicolons Non-zero if the language uses semicolons after statements. backtick_quoted_strings Non-zero if the language has backtick-quoted strings. single_quoted_strings Non-zero if the language has single-quoted strings. indentation_sensitive Non-zero if the language is indentation sensitive. wrap_blocks_in_braces Non-zero if compound statements must be wrapped in curly braces. Inplace configurations Syntax files define initial values of all re2c: configurations, as they may differ for different languages. See configurations section for a full list of all inplace configurations and their meaning. Code templates Code templates define syntax of the target language. They are written in a simple domain-specific language with the following formal grammar: code-template :: name '=' code-exprs ';' | CODE_TEMPLATE ';' | '<undefined>' ';' code-exprs :: <EMPTY> | code-exprs code-expr code-expr :: STRING | VARIABLE | optional | list optional :: '(' CONDITIONAL '?' code-exprs ')' | '(' CONDITIONAL '?' code-exprs ':' code-exprs ')' list :: '[' VARIABLE ':' code-exprs ']' | '[' VARIABLE '{' NUMBER '}' ':' code-exprs ']' | '[' VARIABLE '{' NUMBER ',' NUMBER '}' ':' code-exprs ']' A code template is a sequence of string literals, variables, optional elements and lists, or a reference to another code template, or a spe- cial value <undefined>. Variables are placeholders that are substituted during code generation phase. List variables are special: when expanding list templates, re2d repeats expressions the right hand side of the col- umn a few times, each time replacing occurrences of the list variable with a value specific to this repetition. Lists have optional bounds (negative values are counted from the end, e.g. -1 means the last ele- ment). Conditional names start with a dot. Both conditionals and vari- ables may be either local (specific to the given code template) or global (allowed in all code templates). When re2d reads syntax file, it checks that each code template uses only the variables and conditionals that are allowed in it. For example, the following code template defines if-then-else construct for a C-like language: code:if_then_else = [branch{0}: topindent "if " cond " {" nl indent [stmt: stmt] dedent] [branch{1:-1}: topindent "} else" (.cond ? " if " cond) " {" nl indent [stmt: stmt] dedent] topindent "}" nl; Here branch is a list variable: branch{0} expands to the first branch (which is special, as there is no else part), branch{1:-1} expands to all remaining branches (if any). stmt is also a list variable: [stmt: stmt] is a nested list that expands to a list of statements in the body of the current branch. topindent, indent, dedent and nl are global vari- ables, and .cond is a local conditional (their meaning is described be- low). This code template could produce the following code: if x { // do something } else if y { // do something else } else { // don't do anything } Here's a list of all code templates supported by re2d with their local variables and conditionals. Note that a particular definition may, but does not have to use local variables and conditionals. Any unused code templates should be set to <undefined>. code:var_local Declaration or definition of a local variable. Supported vari- ables: type (the type of the variable), name (its name) and init (initial value, if any). Conditionals: .init (true if there is an initializer). code:var_global Same as code:var_local, except that it's used in top-level. code:const_local Definition of a local constant. Supported variables: type (the type of the constant), name (its name) and init (initial value). code:const_global Same as code:const_local, except that it's used in top-level. code:array_local Definition of a local array (table). Supported variables: type (the type of array elements), name (array name), size (its size), row (a list variable that does not itself produce any code, but expands list expression as many times as there are rows in the table) and elem (a list variable that expands to all table ele- ments in the current row -- it's meant to be nested in the row list). Supported conditional: .const (true if the array is im- mutable). code:array_global Same as code:array_local, except that it's used in top-level. code:array_elem Reference to an element of an array (table). Supported variables: array (the name of the array) and index (index of the element). code:enum Definition of an enumeration (it may be defined using a special language construct for enumerations, or simply as a few stand- alone constants). Supported variables are type (user-defined enumeration type or type of the constants), elem (list variable that expands to the name of each member) and init (initializer for each member). Conditionals: .init (true if there is an ini- tializer). code:enum_elem Enumeration element (a member of a user-defined enumeration type or a name of a constant, depending on how code:enum is defined). Supported variables are name (the name of the element) and type (its type). code:assign Assignment statement. Supported variables are lhs (left hand side) and rhs (right hand side). code:type_int Signed integer type. code:type_uint Unsigned integer type. code:type_yybm Type of elements in the yybm table. code:type_yytarget Type of elements in the yytarget table. code:type_yyctable Type of elements in the yyctable table. code:cmp_eq Operator "equals". code:cmp_ne Operator "not equals". code:cmp_lt Operator "less than". code:cmp_gt Operator "greater than" code:cmp_le Operator "less or equal" code:cmp_ge Operator "greater or equal" code:if_then_else If-then-else statement with one or more branches. Supported vari- ables: branch (a list variable that does not itself produce any code, but expands list expression as many times as there are branches), cond (condition of the current branch) and stmt (a list variable that expands to all statements in the current branch). Conditionals: .cond (true if the current branch has a condition), .many (true if there's more than one branch). code:if_then_else_oneline A specialization of code:if_then_else for the case when all branches have one-line statements. If this is <undefined>, code:if_then_else is used instead. code:switch A switch statement with one or more cases. Supported variables: expr (the switched-on expression) and case (a list variable that expands to all cases-groups with their code blocks). code:switch_cases A group of switch cases that maps to a single code block. Sup- ported variables are case (a list variable that expands to all cases in this group) and stmt (a list variable that expands to all statements in the code block. code:switch_cases_oneline A specialization of code:switch_cases for the case when the code block consists of a single one-line statement. If this is <unde- fined>, code:switch_cases is used instead. code:switch_case_range A single switch case that covers a range of values (possibly con- sisting of a single value). Supported variable: val (a list vari- able that expands to all values in the range). Supported condi- tionals: .many (true if there's more than one value in the range) and .char_literals (true if this is a switch on character liter- als -- some languages provide special syntax for this case). code:switch_case_default Default switch case. code:loop A loop that runs forever (unless interrupted from the loop body). Supported variables: label (loop label), stmt (a list variable that expands to all statements in the loop body). code:continue Continue statement. Supported variables: label (label from which to continue execution). code:goto Goto statement. Supported variables: label (label of the jump target). code:cgoto Computed goto statement. Supported variables: array (the table containing computed goto information), index (index of the ele- ment in the table) and base (base label, only used if .cgoto.rel- ative is true). code:cgoto:data Initializer expression for a single element in computed goto ta- ble. Supported variables: label (the label that is used to ini- tialize the current element), type (underlying type of the ele- ments in the table) and base (base label - only used if .cgoto.relative is true). code:fndecl Function declaration. Supported variables: name (function name), type (return type), throw (exceptions thrown by this function, maps to re2c:yyfn:throw configuration), arg (a list variable that does not itself produce code, but expands list expression as many times as there are function arguments), argname (name of the cur- rent argument), argtype (type of the current argument). Condi- tional: .type (true if this is a non-void function). code:fndef Like code:fndecl, but used for function definitions, so it has one additional list variable stmt that expands to all statements in the function body. code:fncall Function call statement. Supported variables: name (function name), retval (l-value where the return value is stored, if any) and arg (a list variable that expands to all function arguments). Conditionals: .args (true if the function has arguments) and .retval (true if return value needs to be saved). code:tailcall Tail call statement. Supported variables: name (function name), and arg (a list variable that expands to all function arguments). Conditionals: .args (true if the function has arguments) and .retval (true if this is a non-void function). code:recursive_functions Program body with --recursive-functions code model. Supported variables: fn (a list variable that does not itself produce any code, but expands list expression as many times as there are functions), fndecl (declaration of the current function) and fn- def (definition of the current function). code:fingerprint The fingerprint at the top of the generated output file. Sup- ported variables: ver (re2d version that was used to generate this) and date (generation date). code:line_info The format of line directives (if this is set to <undefined>, no directives are generated). Supported variables: line (line num- ber) and file (filename). code:abort A statement that aborts program execution. code:yydebug YYDEBUG statement, possibly specialized for different APIs. Sup- ported variables: YYDEBUG, yyrecord, yych (map to the correspond- ing re2c: configurations), state (DFA state number). code:yypeek YYPEEK statement, possibly specialized for different APIs. Sup- ported variables: YYPEEK, YYCTYPE, YYINPUT, YYCURSOR, yyrecord, yych (map to the corresponding re2c: configurations). Condition- als: .cast (true if re2c:yych:conversion is set to non-zero). code:yyskip YYSKIP statement, possibly specialized for different APIs. Sup- ported variables: YYSKIP, YYCURSOR, yyrecord (map to the corre- sponding re2c: configurations). code:yybackup YYBACKUP statement, possibly specialized for different APIs. Supported variables: YYBACKUP, YYCURSOR, YYMARKER, yyrecord (map to the corresponding re2c: configurations). code:yybackupctx YYBACKUPCTX statement, possibly specialized for different APIs. Supported variables: YYBACKUPCTX, YYCURSOR, YYCTXMARKER, yyrecord (map to the corresponding re2c: configurations). code:yyskip_yypeek Combined code:yyskip and code:yypeek statement (defaults to code:yyskip followed by code:yypeek). code:yypeek_yyskip Combined code:yypeek and code:yyskip statement (defaults to code:yypeek followed by code:yyskip). code:yyskip_yybackup Combined code:yyskip and code:yybackup statement (defaults to code:yyskip followed by code:yybackup). code:yybackup_yyskip Combined code:yybackup and code:yyskip statement (defaults to code:yybackup followed by code:yyskip). code:yybackup_yypeek Combined code:yybackup and code:yypeek statement (defaults to code:yybackup followed by code:yypeek). code:yyskip_yybackup_yypeek Combined code:yyskip, code:yybackup and code:yypeek statement (defaults to``code:yyskip`` followed by code:yybackup followed by code:yypeek). code:yybackup_yypeek_yyskip Combined code:yybackup, code:yypeek and code:yyskip statement (defaults to``code:yybackup`` followed by code:yypeek followed by code:yyskip). code:yyrestore YYRESTORE statement, possibly specialized for different APIs. Supported variables: YYRESTORE, YYCURSOR, YYMARKER, yyrecord (map to the corresponding re2c: configurations). code:yyrestorectx YYRESTORECTX statement, possibly specialized for different APIs. Supported variables: YYRESTORECTX, YYCURSOR, YYCTXMARKER, yyrecord (map to the corresponding re2c: configurations). code:yyrestoretag YYRESTORETAG statement, possibly specialized for different APIs. Supported variables: YYRESTORETAG, YYCURSOR, yyrecord (map to the corresponding re2c: configurations), tag (the name of tag vari- able used to restore position). code:yyshift YYSHIFT statement, possibly specialized for different APIs. Sup- ported variables: YYSHIFT, YYCURSOR, yyrecord (map to the corre- sponding re2c: configurations), offset (the number of code units to shift the current position). code:yyshiftstag YYSHIFTSTAG statement, possibly specialized for different APIs. Supported variables: YYSHIFTSTAG, yyrecord, negative (map to the corresponding re2c: configurations), tag (tag variable which needs to be shifted), offset (the number of code units to shift). Conditionals: .nested (true if this is a nested tag -- in this case its value may equal to re2c:tags:negative, which should not be shifted). code:yyshiftmtag YYSHIFTMTAG statement, possibly specialized for different APIs. Supported variables: YYSHIFTMTAG (maps to the corresponding re2c: configuration), tag (tag variable which needs to be shifted), offset (the number of code units to shift). code:yystagp YYSTAGP statement, possibly specialized for different APIs. Sup- ported variables: YYSTAGP, YYCURSOR, yyrecord (map to the corre- sponding re2c: configurations), tag (tag variable that should be updated). code:yymtagp YYMTAGP statement, possibly specialized for different APIs. Sup- ported variables: YYMTAGP (maps to the corresponding re2c: con- figuration), tag (tag variable that should be updated). code:yystagn YYSTAGN statement, possibly specialized for different APIs. Sup- ported variables: YYSTAGN, negative, yyrecord (map to the corre- sponding re2c: configurations), tag (tag variable that should be updated). code:yymtagn YYMTAGN statement, possibly specialized for different APIs. Sup- ported variables: YYMTAGN (maps to the corresponding re2c: con- figuration), tag (tag variable that should be updated). code:yycopystag YYCOPYSTAG statement, possibly specialized for different APIs. Supported variables: YYCOPYSTAG, yyrecord (map to the correspond- ing re2c: configurations), lhs, rhs (left and right hand side tag variables of the copy operation). code:yycopymtag YYCOPYMTAG statement, possibly specialized for different APIs. Supported variables: YYCOPYMTAG, yyrecord (map to the correspond- ing re2c: configurations), lhs, rhs (left and right hand side tag variables of the copy operation). code:yygetaccept YYGETACCEPT statement, possibly specialized for different APIs. Supported variables: YYGETACCEPT, yyrecord (map to the corre- sponding re2c: configurations), var (maps to re2c:yyaccept con- figuration). code:yysetaccept YYSETACCEPT statement, possibly specialized for different APIs. Supported variables: YYSETACCEPT, yyrecord (map to the corre- sponding re2c: configurations), var (maps to re2c:yyaccept con- figuration) and val (numeric value of the accepted rule). code:yygetcond YYGETCOND statement, possibly specialized for different APIs. Supported variables: YYGETCOND, yyrecord (map to the correspond- ing re2c: configurations), var (maps to re2c:yycond configura- tion). code:yysetcond YYSETCOND statement, possibly specialized for different APIs. Supported variables: YYSETCOND, yyrecord (map to the correspond- ing re2c: configurations), var (maps to re2c:yycond configura- tion) and val (numeric condition identifier). code:yygetstate YYGETSTATE statement, possibly specialized for different APIs. Supported variables: YYGETSTATE, yyrecord (map to the correspond- ing re2c: configurations), var (maps to re2c:yystate configura- tion). code:yysetstate YYSETSTATE statement, possibly specialized for different APIs. Supported variables: YYSETSTATE, yyrecord (map to the correspond- ing re2c: configurations), var (maps to re2c:yystate configura- tion) and val (state number). code:yylessthan YYLESSTHAN statement, possibly specialized for different APIs. Supported variables: YYLESSTHAN, YYCURSOR, YYLIMIT, yyrecord (map to the corresponding re2c: configurations), need (the number of code units to check against). Conditional: .many (true if the need is more than one). code:yyend YYEND expression, possibly specialized for different APIs. Sup- ported variables: YYEND, YYCURSOR, YYLIMIT. code:yybm_filter Condition that is used to filter out yych values that are not covered by the yybm table (used with --bitmaps option). Sup- ported variable: yych (maps to re2c:yych configuration). code:yybm_match The format of yybm table check (generated with --bitmaps option). Supported variables: yybm, yych (map to the corresponding re2c: configurations), offset (offset in the yybm table that needs to be added to yych) and mask (bit mask that should be applied to the table entry to retrieve the boolean value that needs to be checked) code:yytarget_filter Condition that is used to filter out yych values that are not covered by the yytarget table (used with --computed-gotos op- tion). Supported variable: yych (maps to re2c:yych configura- tion). Here's a list of all global variables that are allowed in syntax files: nl A newline. indent A variable that does not produce any code, but has a side-effect of increasing indentation level. dedent A variable that does not produce any code, but has a side-effect of decreasing indentation level. topindent Indentation string for the current statement. Indentation level is tracked and automatically updated by the code generator. Here's a list of all global conditionals that are allowed in syntax files: .api.simple True if simple API is used (--api simple or re2c:api = simple). .api.generic True if generic API is used (--api generic or re2c:api = generic). .api.record True if record API is used (--api record or re2c:api = record). .api_style.functions True if function-like API style is used (re2c:api-style = func- tions). .api_style.freeform True if free-form API style is used (re2c:api-style = free-form). .case_ranges True if case ranges feature is enabled (--case-ranges or re2c:case-ranges = 1). .cgoto.relative True if the relative form of computed goto is used (--com- puted-gotos-relative or re2c:cgoto:relative = 1). .code_model.goto_label True if code model based on goto/label is used (--goto-label). .code_model.loop_switch True if code model based on loop/switch is used (--loop-switch). .code_model.recursive_functions True if code model based on recursive functions is used (--recur- sive-function). .date True if the generated fingerprint should contain generation date. .loop_label True if re2d generated loops must have a label (re2c:label:yyloop is set to a nonempty string). .monadic True if the generated code should be monadic (re2c:monadic = 1). This is only relevant for pure functional languages. .start_conditions True if start conditions are enabled (--start-conditions). .storable_state True if storable state is enabled (--storable-state). .unsafe True if re2d should use "unsafe" blocks in order to generate faster code (--unsafe, re2c:unsafe = 1). This is only relevant for languages that have "unsafe" feature. .version True if the generated fingerprint should contain re2d version. .yyfill.enable True if YYFILL is enabled (re2c:yyfill:enable = 1). .yyfn.throw True if re2c:yyfn:throw configuration is defined to a nonempty string. HANDLING THE END OF INPUT One of the main problems for the lexer is to know when to stop. There are a few terminating conditions: * the lexer may match some rule (including default rule *) and come to a final state * the lexer may fail to match any rule and come to a default state * the lexer may reach the end of input The first two conditions terminate the lexer in a "natural" way: it comes to a state with no outgoing transitions, and the matching automatically stops. The third condition, end of input, is different: it may happen in any state, and the lexer should be able to handle it. Checking for the end of input interrupts the normal lexer workflow and adds conditional branches to the generated program, therefore it is necessary to minimize the number of such checks. re2d supports a few different methods for handling the end of input. Which one to use depends on the complexity of regular expres- sions, the need for buffering, performance considerations and other fac- tors. Here is a list of methods: * Sentinel. This method eliminates the need for the end of input checks altogether. It is simple and efficient, but limited to the case when there is a natural "sentinel" character that can never occur in valid in- put. This character may still occur in invalid input, but it should not be allowed by the regular expressions, except perhaps as the last charac- ter of a rule. The sentinel is appended at the end of input and serves as a stop signal: when the lexer reads this character, it is either a syntax error or the end of input. In both cases the lexer should stop. This method is used if YYFILL is disabled with re2c:yyfill:enable = 0; and re2c:eof has the default value -1. * Sentinel with bounds checks. This method is generic: it allows one to handle any input without restrictions on the regular expressions. The idea is to reduce the number of end of input checks by performing them only on certain characters. Similar to the "sentinel" method, one of the characters is chosen as a "sentinel" and appended at the end of input. However, there is no restriction on where the sentinel may occur (in fact, any character can be chosen for a sentinel). When the lexer reads this character, it additionally performs a bounds check. If the current position is within bounds, the lexer resumes matching and handles the sentinel as a regular character. Otherwise it invokes YYFILL (unless it is disabled). If more input is supplied, the lexer will rematch the last character and continue as if the sentinel wasn't there. Otherwise it must be the real end of input, and the lexer stops. This method is used when re2c:eof has non-negative value (it should be set to the numeric value of the sentinel). YYFILL is optional. * Bounds checks with padding. This method is generic, and it may be faster than the "sentinel with bounds checks" method, but it is also more com- plex. The idea is to partition DFA states into strongly connected compo- nents (SCCs) and generate a single check per SCC for enough characters to cover the longest non-looping path in this SCC. This reduces the number of checks, but there is a problem with short lexemes at the end of input, as the check requires enough characters to cover the longest lexeme. This can be fixed by padding the input with a few fake characters that do not form a valid lexeme suffix (so that the lexer cannot match them). The length of padding should be YYMAXFILL, generated with a max block. If there is not enough input, the lexer invokes YYFILL which should supply at least the required number of characters or not return. This method is used if YYFILL is enabled and re2c:eof is -1 (this is the default config- uration). * Custom checks. Generic API allows one to override basic operations like reading a character, which makes it possible to include the end-of-input checks as part of them. This approach is error-prone and should be used with caution. To use a custom method, enable generic API with --api cus- tom or re2c:api = custom; and disable default bounds checks with re2c:yy- fill:enable = 0; or re2c:yyfill:check = 0;. The following subsections contain an example of each method. Sentinel This example uses a sentinel character to handle the end of input. The pro- gram counts space-separated words in a null-terminated string. The sentinel is null: it is the last character of each input string, and it is not al- lowed in the middle of a lexeme by any of the rules (in particular, it is not included in character ranges where it is easy to overlook). If a null occurs in the middle of a string, it is a syntax error and the lexer will match default rule *, but it won't read past the end of input or crash (use -Wsentinel-in-midrule warning and re2c:sentinel configuration to verify this). Configuration re2c:yyfill:enable = 0; suppresses the generation of bounds checks and YYFILL invocations. // re2d $INPUT -o $OUTPUT module main; // Expect a null-terminated string. private int lex(const(char)* yycursor) { uint count = 0; for (;;) { /*!re2c re2c:YYCTYPE = char; re2c:yyfill:enable = 0; * { return -1; } [\x00] { return count; } [a-z]+ { ++count; continue; } [ ]+ { continue; } */ } assert(0); // unreachable } void main() { assert(lex("") == 0); assert(lex("one two three") == 3); assert(lex("f0ur") == -1); } Sentinel with bounds checks This example uses sentinel with bounds checks to handle the end of input (this method was added in version 1.2). The program counts space-separated single-quoted strings. The sentinel character is null, which is specified with re2c:eof = 0; configuration. As in the sentinel method, null is the last character of each input string, but it is allowed in the middle of a rule (for example, 'aaa\0aa'\0 is valid input, but 'aaa\0 is a syntax er- ror). Bounds checks are generated in each state that matches an input character, but they are scoped to the branch that handles null. Bounds checks are of the form YYLIMIT <= YYCURSOR or YYLESSTHAN(1) with generic API. If the check condition is true, lexer has reached the end of input and should stop (YYFILL is disabled with re2c:yyfill:enable = 0; as the input fits into one buffer, see the YYFILL with sentinel section for an example that uses YYFILL). Reaching the end of input opens three possibilities: if the lexer is in the initial state it will match the end-of-input rule $, otherwise it may fallback to a previously matched rule (including default rule *) or go to a default state, causing -Wundefined-control-flow. // re2d $INPUT -o $OUTPUT module main; // Expect a null-terminated string. private int lex(immutable char[] s) { const(char)* yycursor = s.ptr, yylimit = s.ptr + s.length, yymarker; int count = 0; for (;;) { /*!re2c re2c:YYCTYPE = char; re2c:yyfill:enable = 0; re2c:eof = 0; str = ['] ([^'\\] | [\\][^])* [']; * { return -1; } $ { return count; } str { ++count; continue; } [ ]+ { continue; } */ } assert(0); // unreachable } void main() { assert(lex("") == 0); assert(lex("'qu\0tes' 'are' 'fine: \\'' ") == 3); assert(lex("'unterminated\\'") == -1); } Bounds checks with padding This example uses bounds checks with padding to handle the end of input (this method is enabled by default). The program counts space-separated single-quoted strings. There is a padding of YYMAXFILL null characters ap- pended at the end of input, where YYMAXFILL value is autogenerated with a max block. It is not necessary to use null for padding --- any characters can be used as long as they do not form a valid lexeme suffix (in this ex- ample padding should not contain single quotes, as they may be mistaken for a suffix of a single-quoted string). There is a "stop" rule that matches the first padding character (null) and terminates the lexer (note that it checks if null is at the beginning of padding, otherwise it is a syntax er- ror). Bounds checks are generated only in some states that are determined by the strongly connected components of the underlying automaton. Checks have the form (YYLIMIT - YYCURSOR) < n or YYLESSTHAN(n) with generic API, where n is the minimum number of characters that are needed for the lexer to proceed (it also means that the next bounds check will occur in at most n characters). If the check condition is true, the lexer has reached the end of input and will invoke YYFILL(n) that should either supply at least n input characters or not return. In this example YYFILL always fails and terminates the lexer with an error (which is fine because the input fits into one buffer). See the YYFILL with padding section for an example that refills the input buffer with YYFILL. // re2d $INPUT -o $OUTPUT module main; import core.stdc.stdlib; import core.stdc.string; /*!max:re2c*/ private int lex(immutable char[] s) { // Make a copy of the string with YYMAXFILL zeroes at the end. char *buf = cast(char*) malloc(s.length + YYMaxFill); memcpy(buf, cast(const(void*)) s, s.length); memset(buf + s.length, 0, YYMaxFill); const(char)* yycursor = buf; const(char)* yylimit = buf + s.length + YYMaxFill; int count = 0; loop: /*!re2c re2c:YYCTYPE = char; re2c:YYFILL = "goto fail;"; str = ['] ([^'\\] | [\\][^])* [']; [\x00] { // Check that it is the sentinel, not some unexpected null. if (yycursor - 1 == buf + s.length) goto exit; else goto fail; } str { ++count; goto loop; } [ ]+ { goto loop; } * { goto fail; } */ fail: count = -1; exit: free(buf); return count; } void main() { assert(lex("") == 0); assert(lex("'qu\0tes' 'are' 'fine: \\'' ") == 3); assert(lex("'unterminated\\'") == -1); assert(lex("'unexpected \0 null\\'") == -1); } Custom checks This example uses a custom end-of-input handling method based on generic API. The program counts space-separated single-quoted strings. It is the same as the sentinel example, except that the input is not null-terminated. To cover up for the absence of a sentinel character at the end of input, YYPEEK is redefined to perform a bounds check before it reads the next in- put character. This is inefficient because checks are done very often. If the check condition fails, YYPEEK returns the real character, otherwise it returns a fake sentinel character. // re2d $INPUT -o $OUTPUT module main; import core.stdc.stdlib; import core.stdc.string; private int lex(immutable char[] s) { // For the sake of example create a string without terminating null. char *buf = cast(char*) malloc(s.length); memcpy(buf, cast(const(void*)) s, s.length); const(char) *cur = buf, lim = buf + s.length; int count = 0; for (;;) { /*!re2c re2c:api = generic; re2c:yyfill:enable = 0; re2c:YYCTYPE = char; re2c:YYPEEK = "cur < lim ? *cur : 0"; // fake null re2c:YYSKIP = "++cur;"; * { count = -1; break; } [\x00] { break;{} } [a-z]+ { ++count; continue;{} } [ ]+ { continue; } */ } free(buf); return count; } void main() { assert(lex("") == 0); assert(lex("one two three ") == 3); assert(lex("f0ur") == -1); } BUFFER REFILLING The need for buffering arises when the input cannot be mapped in memory all at once: either it is too large, or it comes in a streaming fashion (like reading from a socket). The usual technique in such cases is to allocate a fixed-sized memory buffer and process input in chunks that fit into the buffer. When the current chunk is processed, it is moved out and new data is moved in. In practice it is somewhat more complex, because lexer state consists not of a single input position, but a set of interrelated posi- tions: * cursor: the next input character to be read (YYCURSOR in C pointer API or YYSKIP/YYPEEK in generic API) * limit: the position after the last available input character (YYLIMIT in C pointer API, implicitly handled by YYLESSTHAN in generic API) * marker: the position of the most recent match, if any (YYMARKER in de- fault API or YYBACKUP/YYRESTORE in generic API) * token: the start of the current lexeme (implicit in re2d API, as it is not needed for the normal lexer operation and can be defined and updated by the user) * context marker: the position of the trailing context (YYCTXMARKER in C pointer API or YYBACKUPCTX/YYRESTORECTX in generic API) * tag variables: submatch positions (defined with stags and mtags blocks and generic API primitives YYSTAGP/YYSTAGN/YYMTAGP/YYMTAGN) Not all these are used in every case, but if used, they must be updated by YYFILL. All active positions are contained in the segment between token and cursor, therefore everything between buffer start and token can be dis- carded, the segment from token and up to limit should be moved to the be- ginning of buffer, and the free space at the end of buffer should be filled with new data. In order to avoid frequent YYFILL calls it is best to fill in as many input characters as possible (even though fewer characters might suffice to resume the lexer). The details of YYFILL implementation are slightly different depending on which EOF handling method is used: the case of EOF rule is somewhat simpler than the case of bounds-checking with padding. Also note that if -f --storable-state option is used, YYFILL has slightly different semantics (described in the section about storable state). YYFILL with sentinel If EOF rule is used, YYFILL is a function-like primitive that accepts no arguments and returns a value which is checked against zero. YYFILL invoca- tion is triggered by condition YYLIMIT <= YYCURSOR in C pointer API and YY- LESSTHAN() in generic API. A non-zero return value means that YYFILL has failed. A successful YYFILL call must supply at least one character and ad- just input positions accordingly. Limit must always be set to one after the last input position in buffer, and the character at the limit position must be the sentinel symbol specified by re2c:eof configuration. The pictures below show the relative locations of input positions in buffer before and after YYFILL call (sentinel symbol is marked with #, and the second picture shows the case when there is not enough input to fill the whole buffer). <-- shift --> >-A------------B---------C-------------D#-----------E-> buffer token marker limit, cursor >-A------------B---------C-------------D------------E#-> buffer, marker cursor limit token <-- shift --> >-A------------B---------C-------------D#--E (EOF) buffer token marker limit, cursor >-A------------B---------C-------------D---E#........ buffer, marker cursor limit token Here is an example of a program that reads input file input.txt in chunks of 4096 bytes and uses EOF rule. // re2d $INPUT -o $OUTPUT module main; import core.stdc.string; import core.stdc.stdio; enum BUFSIZE = 4095; struct Input { FILE* file; char[BUFSIZE + 1] buffer;// +1 for sentinel char* yylimit, yycursor, yymarker, token; bool eof; }; private int fill(ref Input it) { if (it.eof) return 1; const size_t shift = it.token - it.buffer.ptr; const size_t used = it.yylimit - it.token; // Error: lexeme too long. In real life could reallocate a larger buffer. if (shift < 1) return 2; // Shift buffer contents (discard everything up to the current token). memmove(cast(void*)it.buffer.ptr, it.token, used); it.yylimit -= shift; it.yycursor -= shift; it.yymarker -= shift; it.token -= shift; // Fill free space at the end of buffer with new data from file. it.yylimit += fread(it.yylimit, 1, BUFSIZE - used, it.file); it.yylimit[0] = 0; it.eof = it.yylimit < (it.buffer.ptr + BUFSIZE); return 0; } private int lex(ref Input yyrecord) { int count = 0; for (;;) { yyrecord.token = yyrecord.yycursor; /*!re2c re2c:api = record; re2c:YYCTYPE = "char"; re2c:YYFILL = "fill(yyrecord) == 0"; re2c:eof = 0; str = ['] ([^'\\] | [\\][^])* [']; * { return -1; } $ { return count; } str { ++count; continue; } [ ]+ { continue; } */ } assert(0); } void main() { const char[] fname = "input"; const char[] content = "'qu\0tes' 'are' 'fine: \\'' "; // Prepare input file: a few times the size of the buffer, containing // strings with zeroes and escaped quotes. FILE* f = fopen(fname.ptr, "w"); for (int i = 0; i < BUFSIZE; ++i) { fwrite(cast(const(void*)) content.ptr, 1, content.length - 1, f); } fclose(f); int count = 3 * BUFSIZE; // number of quoted strings written to file // Initialize lexer state: all pointers are at the end of buffer. Input it; it.file = fopen(fname.ptr, "r"); it.yycursor = it.yymarker = it.token = it.yylimit = it.buffer.ptr + BUFSIZE; it.eof = 0; // Sentinel (at YYLIMIT pointer) is set to zero, which triggers YYFILL. it.yylimit[0] = 0; // Run the lexer. assert(lex(it) == count); // Cleanup: remove input file. fclose(it.file); remove(fname.ptr); } YYFILL with padding In the default case (when EOF rule is not used) YYFILL is a function-like primitive that accepts a single argument and does not return any value. YYFILL invocation is triggered by condition (YYLIMIT - YYCURSOR) < n in C pointer API and YYLESSTHAN(n) in generic API. The argument passed to YYFILL is the minimal number of characters that must be supplied. If it fails to do so, YYFILL must not return to the lexer (for that reason it is best im- plemented as a macro that returns from the calling function on failure). In case of a successful YYFILL invocation the limit position must be set either to one after the last input position in buffer, or to the end of YY- MAXFILL padding (in case YYFILL has successfully read at least n charac- ters, but not enough to fill the entire buffer). The pictures below show the relative locations of input positions in buffer before and after YYFILL invocation (YYMAXFILL padding on the second picture is marked with # sym- bols). <-- shift --> <-- need --> >-A------------B---------C-----D-------E---F--------G-> buffer token marker cursor limit >-A------------B---------C-----D-------E---F--------G-> buffer, marker cursor limit token <-- shift --> <-- need --> >-A------------B---------C-----D-------E-F (EOF) buffer token marker cursor limit >-A------------B---------C-----D-------E-F############### buffer, marker cursor limit token <- YYMAXFILL -> Here is an example of a program that reads input file input.txt in chunks of 4096 bytes and uses bounds-checking with padding. // re2d $INPUT -o $OUTPUT module main; import core.stdc.string; import core.stdc.stdio; /*!max:re2c*/ enum BufSize = (4096 - YYMaxFill); struct Input { FILE* file; char[BufSize + YYMaxFill] buffer; char* yylimit, yycursor, token; bool eof; }; private int fill(ref Input it, size_t need) { if (it.eof) return 1; const size_t shift = it.token - it.buffer.ptr; const size_t used = it.yylimit - it.token; // Error: lexeme too long. In real life could reallocate a larger buffer. if (shift < need) return 2; // Shift buffer contents (discard everything up to the current token). memmove(it.buffer.ptr, it.token, used); it.yylimit -= shift; it.yycursor -= shift; it.token -= shift; // Fill free space at the end of buffer with new data from file. it.yylimit += fread(it.yylimit, 1, BufSize - used, it.file); // If read less than expected, this is end of input => add zero padding // so that the lexer can access characters at the end of buffer. if (it.yylimit < it.buffer.ptr + BufSize) { it.eof = true; memset(it.yylimit, 0, YYMaxFill); it.yylimit += YYMaxFill; } return 0; } private int lex(ref Input yyrecord) { int count = 0; for (;;) { yyrecord.token = yyrecord.yycursor; /*!re2c re2c:api = record; re2c:YYCTYPE = "char"; re2c:YYFILL = "if (fill(yyrecord, @@) != 0) return -1;"; str = ['] ([^'\\] | [\\][^])* [']; [\x00] { // Check that it is the sentinel, not some unexpected null. return yyrecord.token == yyrecord.yylimit - YYMaxFill ? count : -1; } str { ++count; continue; } [ ]+ { continue; } * { return -1; } */ } assert(0); } void main() { const char[] fname = "input"; const char[] content = "'qu\0tes' 'are' 'fine: \\'' "; // Prepare input file: a few times the size of the buffer, containing // strings with zeroes and escaped quotes. FILE* f = fopen(fname.ptr, "w"); for (int i = 0; i < BufSize; ++i) { fwrite(content.ptr, 1, content.length - 1, f); } fclose(f); int count = 3 * BufSize; // number of quoted strings written to file // Initialize lexer state: all pointers are at the end of buffer. // This immediately triggers YYFILL, as the check `it.yycursor < it.yylimit` fails. Input it; it.file = fopen(fname.ptr, "r"); it.yycursor = it.token = it.yylimit = it.buffer.ptr + BufSize; it.eof = 0; // Run the lexer. assert(lex(it) == count); // Cleanup: remove input file. fclose(it.file); remove(fname.ptr); } FEATURES Multiple blocks Sometimes it is necessary to have multiple interrelated lexers (for exam- ple, if there is a high-level state machine that transitions between lexer modes). This can be implemented using multiple connected re2d blocks. An- other option is to use start conditions. The implementation of connections between blocks depends on the target lan- guage. In languages that have goto statement (such as C/C++ and Go) one can have all blocks in one function, each of them prefixed with a label. Transition from one block to another is a simple goto. In languages that do not have goto (such as Rust) it is necessary to use a loop with a switch on a state variable, similar to the yystate loop/switch generated by re2d, or else wrap each block in a function and use function calls. The example below uses multiple blocks to parse binary, octal, decimal and hexadecimal numbers. Each base has its own block. The initial block deter- mines base and dispatches to other blocks. Common configurations are de- fined in a separate block at the beginning of the program; they are inher- ited by the other blocks. // re2d $INPUT -o $OUTPUT -i module main; enum ERROR = ulong.max; private void add(ulong BASE)(ref ulong u, int d) { u = u * BASE + d; if (u > uint.max) { u = ERROR; } } private ulong parse_u32(const(char)* s) { const(char)* yycursor = s, yymarker; ulong u = 0; /*!re2c re2c:yyfill:enable = 0; re2c:YYCTYPE = char; end = "\x00"; '0b' / [01] { goto bin; } "0" { goto oct; } "" / [1-9] { goto dec; } '0x' / [0-9a-fA-F] { goto hex; } * { return ERROR; } */ bin: /*!re2c end { return u; } [01] { add!(2)(u, yycursor[-1] - '0'); goto bin; } * { return ERROR; } */ oct: /*!re2c end { return u; } [0-7] { add!(8)(u, yycursor[-1] - '0'); goto oct; } * { return ERROR; } */ dec: /*!re2c end { return u; } [0-9] { add!(10)(u, yycursor[-1] - '0'); goto dec; } * { return ERROR; } */ hex: /*!re2c end { return u; } [0-9] { add!(16)(u, yycursor[-1] - '0'); goto hex; } [a-f] { add!(16)(u, yycursor[-1] - 'a' + 10); goto hex; } [A-F] { add!(16)(u, yycursor[-1] - 'A' + 10); goto hex; } * { return ERROR; } */ } void main() { assert(parse_u32("") == ERROR); assert(parse_u32("1234567890") == 1234567890); assert(parse_u32("0b1101") == 13); assert(parse_u32("0x7Fe") == 2046); assert(parse_u32("0644") == 420); assert(parse_u32("9999999999") == ERROR); } Start conditions Start conditions are enabled with --start-conditions option. They provide a way to encode multiple interrelated automata within the same re2d block. Each condition corresponds to a single automaton and has a unique name specified by the user and a unique internal number defined by re2d. The numbers are used to switch between conditions: the generated code uses YYGETCOND and YYSETCOND primitives to get the current condition or set it to the given number. Use conditions block, --header option or re2c:header configuration to generate numeric condition identifiers. Configuration re2c:cond:enumprefix specifies the generated identifier prefix. In condition mode every rule must be prefixed with a list of comma-sepa- rated condition names in angle brackets, or a wildcard <*> to denote all conditions. The rule syntax is extended as follows: < condition-list > regular-expression code A rule that is merged to every condition on the condition-list. It matches regular-expression and executes the associated code. < condition-list > regular-expression => condition code A rule that is merged to every condition on the condition-list. It matches regular-expression, sets the current condition to con- dition and executes the associated code. < condition-list > regular-expression :=> condition A rule that is merged to every condition on the condition-list. It matches regular-expression and immediately transitions to con- dition (there is no semantic action). < condition-list > !action code A rule that binds code to the place defined by action in every condition on the condition-list (see the actions section for var- ious types of actions). <! condition-list > code A rule that prepends code to semantic actions of all rules for every condition on the condition-list. This syntax is deprecated and the !pre_rule action should be used instead (it does exactly the same). < > code A rule that creates a special entry condition with number zero and name "0" that executes code before jumping to other condi- tions. This syntax is deprecated, and the !entry action should be used instead (it provides a more fine-grained control, as the code can be specified on a per-condition basis, and one can jump directly to condition start without going through condition dis- patch). < > => condition code Same as the previous rule, except that it sets the next condi- tion. < > :=> condition Same as the previous rule, except that it has no associated code and immediately jumps to condition. The code re2d generates for conditions depends on whether re2d uses goto/label approach or loop/switch approach to encode the automata. In languages that have goto statement (such as C/C++ and Go) conditions are naturally implemented as blocks of code prefixed with labels of the form yyc_<cond>, where cond is a condition name (label prefix can be changed with re2c:cond:prefix). Transitions between conditions are implemented us- ing goto and condition labels. Before all conditions re2d generates an ini- tial switch on YYGETSTATE that jumps to the start state of the current con- dition. The shortcut rules :=> bypass the initial switch and jump directly to the specified condition (re2c:cond:goto can be used to change the de- fault behavior). The rules with semantic actions do not automatically jump to the next condition; this should be done by the user-defined action code. In languages that do not have goto (such as Rust) re2d reuses the yystate variable to store condition numbers. Each condition gets a numeric identi- fier equal to the number of its start state, and a switch between condi- tions is no different than a switch between DFA states of a single condi- tion. There is no need for a separate initial condition switch. (Since the same approach is used to implement storable states, YYGETCOND/YYSETCOND are redundant if both storable states and conditions are used). The program below uses start conditions to parse binary, octal, decimal and hexadecimal numbers. There is a single block where each base has its own condition, and the initial condition is connected to all of them. User-de- fined variable cond stores the current condition number; it is initialized to the number of the initial condition generated with conditions block. // re2d $INPUT -o $OUTPUT -ci module main; enum ERROR = ulong.max; /*!conditions:re2c*/ private void add(ulong BASE)(ref ulong u, int d) { u = u * BASE + d; if (u > uint.max) { u = ERROR; } } private ulong parse_u32(const(char)* s) { const(char)* yycursor = s, yymarker; YYCond yycond = YYCond.yycinit; ulong u = 0; /*!re2c re2c:yyfill:enable = 0; re2c:YYCTYPE = char; <*> * { return ERROR; } <init> '0b' / [01] :=> bin <init> "0" :=> oct <init> "" / [1-9] :=> dec <init> '0x' / [0-9a-fA-F] :=> hex <bin, oct, dec, hex> "\x00" { return u; } <bin> [01] { add!(2)(u, yycursor[-1] - '0'); goto yyc_bin; } <oct> [0-7] { add!(8)(u, yycursor[-1] - '0'); goto yyc_oct; } <dec> [0-9] { add!(10)(u, yycursor[-1] - '0'); goto yyc_dec; } <hex> [0-9] { add!(16)(u, yycursor[-1] - '0'); goto yyc_hex; } <hex> [a-f] { add!(16)(u, yycursor[-1] - 'a' + 10); goto yyc_hex; } <hex> [A-F] { add!(16)(u, yycursor[-1] - 'A' + 10); goto yyc_hex; } */ } void main() { assert(parse_u32("") == ERROR); assert(parse_u32("1234567890") == 1234567890); assert(parse_u32("0b1101") == 13); assert(parse_u32("0x7Fe") == 2046); assert(parse_u32("0644") == 420); assert(parse_u32("9999999999") == ERROR); } Storable state With --storable-state option re2d generates a lexer that can store its cur- rent state, return to the caller, and later resume operations exactly where it left off. The default mode of operation in re2d is a "pull" model, in which the lexer "pulls" more input whenever it needs it. This may be unac- ceptable in cases when the input becomes available piece by piece (for ex- ample, if the lexer is invoked by the parser, or if the lexer program com- municates via a socket protocol with some other program that must wait for a reply from the lexer before it transmits the next message). Storable state feature is intended exactly for such cases: it allows one to generate lexers that work in a "push" model. When the lexer needs more input, it stores its state and returns to the caller. Later, when more input becomes available, the caller resumes the lexer exactly where it stopped. There are a few changes necessary compared to the "pull" model: * Define YYSETSTATE() and YYGETSTATE(state) primitives. * Define yych, yyaccept (if used) and state variables as a part of persis- tent lexer state. The state variable should be initialized to -1. * YYFILL should return to the outer program instead of trying to supply more input. Return code should indicate that lexer needs more input. * The outer program should recognize situations when lexer needs more input and respond appropriately. * Optionally use getstate block to generate YYGETSTATE switch detached from the main lexer. This only works for languages that have goto (not in --loop-switch mode). * Use re2c:eof and the sentinel with bounds checks method to handle the end of input. Padding-based method may not work because it is unclear when to append padding: the current end of input may not be the ultimate end of input, and appending padding too early may cut off a partially read greedy lexeme. Furthermore, due to high-level program logic getting more input may depend on processing the lexeme at the end of buffer (which al- ready is blocked due to the end-of-input condition). Here is an example of a "push" model lexer that simulates reading packets from a socket. The lexer loops until it encounters the end of input and re- turns to the calling function. The calling function provides more input by "sending" the next packet and resumes lexing. This process stops when all the packets have been sent, or when there is an error. // re2d $INPUT -o $OUTPUT -f module main; import core.stdc.stdio; import core.stdc.string; // Use a small buffer to cover the case when a lexeme doesn't fit. // In real world use a larger buffer. enum BUFSIZE = 10; struct State { FILE* file; char[BUFSIZE + 1] buffer; char* yylimit, yycursor, yymarker, token; int yystate; }; enum Status {END, READY, WAITING, BAD_PACKET, BIG_PACKET}; private Status fill(ref State st) { const size_t shift = st.token - cast(char*)st.buffer; const size_t used = st.yylimit - st.token; const size_t free = BUFSIZE - used; // Error: no space. In real life can reallocate a larger buffer. if (free < 1) return Status.BIG_PACKET; // Shift buffer contents (discard already processed data). memmove(cast(void*)st.buffer, st.token, used); st.yylimit -= shift; st.yycursor -= shift; st.yymarker -= shift; st.token -= shift; // Fill free space at the end of buffer with new data. const size_t read = fread(st.yylimit, 1, free, st.file); st.yylimit += read; st.yylimit[0] = 0; // append sentinel symbol return Status.READY; } private Status lex(ref State yyrecord, uint* recv) { char yych; /*!getstate:re2c*/ for (;;) { yyrecord.token = yyrecord.yycursor; /*!re2c re2c:api = record; re2c:YYCTYPE = char; re2c:YYFILL = "return Status.WAITING;"; re2c:eof = 0; packet = [a-z]+[;]; * { return Status.BAD_PACKET; } $ { return Status.END; } packet { *recv = *recv + 1; continue; } */ } assert(0); // unreachable } private void test(string[] packets, Status expect) { // Create a pipe (open the same file for reading and writing). const(char*) fname = "pipe"; FILE* fw = fopen(fname, "w"); FILE* fr = fopen(fname, "r"); setvbuf(fw, null, _IONBF, 0); setvbuf(fr, null, _IONBF, 0); // Initialize lexer state: `state` value is -1, all pointers are at the end // of buffer. State st; st.file = fr; st.yycursor = st.yymarker = st.token = st.yylimit = cast(char*)st.buffer + BUFSIZE; // Sentinel (at YYLIMIT pointer) is set to zero, which triggers YYFILL. st.yylimit[0] = 0; st.yystate = -1; // Main loop. The buffer contains incomplete data which appears packet by // packet. When the lexer needs more input it saves its internal state and // returns to the caller which should provide more input and resume lexing. Status status; uint send = 0, recv = 0; for (;;) { status = lex(st, &recv); if (status == Status.END) { debug{printf("done: got %u packets\n", recv);} break; } else if (status == Status.WAITING) { debug{printf("waiting...\n");} if (send < packets.length) { debug{printf("sent packet %u\n", send);} fprintf(fw, "%s", cast(char*)packets[send]); ++send; } status = fill(st); debug{printf("queue: '%s'\n", cast(char*)st.buffer);} if (status == Status.BIG_PACKET) { debug{printf("error: packet too big\n");} break; } assert(status == Status.READY); } else { assert(status == Status.BAD_PACKET); debug{printf("error: ill-formed packet\n");} break; } } // Check results. assert(status == expect); if (status == Status.END) assert(recv == send); // Cleanup: remove input file. fclose(fw); fclose(fr); remove(fname); } void main() { string[] packets1 = []; string[] packets2 = ["zero;", "one;", "two;", "three;", "four;"]; string[] packets3 = ["zer0;"]; string[] packets4 = ["looooooooooong;"]; test(packets1, Status.END); test(packets2, Status.END); test(packets3, Status.BAD_PACKET); test(packets4, Status.BIG_PACKET); } Reusable blocks Reusable blocks of the form /*!rules:re2c[:<name>] ... */ or %{rules[:<name>] ... %} can be reused any number of times and combined with other re2d blocks. The <name> is optional. A rules block can be used in a use block or directive. The code for a rules block is generated at every point of use. Use blocks are defined with /*!use:re2c[:<name>] ... */ or %{use[:<name>] ... %}. The <name> is optional: if it's not specified, the associated rules block is the most recent one (whether named or unnamed). A use block can add named definitions, configurations and rules of its own. An important use case for use blocks is a lexer that supports multiple input encodings: the same rules block is reused multiple times with encoding-specific con- figurations (see the example below). In-block use directive !use:<name>; can be used from inside of a re2d block. It merges the referenced block <name> into the current one. If some of the merged rules and configurations overlap with the previously defined ones, conflicts are resolved in the usual way: the earliest rule takes pri- ority, and latest configuration overrides preceding ones. One exception are the special rules *, $ and (in condition mode) <!>, for which a block-local definition overrides any inherited ones. Use directive allows one to com- bine different re2d blocks together in one block (see the example below). Named blocks and in-block use directive were added in re2d version 2.2. Since that version reusable blocks are allowed by default (no special op- tion is needed). Before version 2.2 reuse mode was enabled with -r --reusable option. Before version 1.2 reusable blocks could not be mixed with normal blocks. Example of a !use directive // re2d $INPUT -o $OUTPUT module main; // This example shows how to combine reusable re2c blocks: two blocks // ('colors' and 'fish') are merged into one. The 'salmon' rule occurs // in both blocks; the 'fish' block takes priority because it is used // earlier. Default rule * occurs in all three blocks; the local (not // inherited) definition takes priority. enum What { COLOR, FISH, DUNNO }; /*!rules:re2c:colors * { assert(false); } "red" | "salmon" | "magenta" { return What.COLOR; } */ /*!rules:re2c:fish * { assert(false); } "haddock" | "salmon" | "eel" { return What.FISH; } */ private What lex(const(char)* s) { const(char)* yycursor = s, yymarker; /*!re2c re2c:YYCTYPE = "char"; re2c:yyfill:enable = 0; !use:fish; !use:colors; * { return What.DUNNO; } // overrides inherited '*' rules */ } void main() { assert(lex("salmon") == What.FISH); assert(lex("what?") == What.DUNNO); } Example of a /*!use:re2c ... */ block // re2d $INPUT -o $OUTPUT --input-encoding utf8 module main; import std.stdint; // This example supports multiple input encodings: UTF-8 and UTF-32. // Both lexers are generated from the same rules block, and the use // blocks add only encoding-specific configurations. /*!rules:re2c re2c:yyfill:enable = 0; "ax ay" { return 0; } * { return 1; } */ private int lex_utf8(const(uint8_t)* s) { const(uint8_t)* yycursor = s, yymarker; /*!use:re2c re2c:YYCTYPE = uint8_t; re2c:encoding:utf8 = 1; */ } private int lex_utf32(const(uint32_t)* s) { const(uint32_t)* yycursor = s, yymarker; /*!use:re2c re2c:YYCTYPE = uint32_t; re2c:encoding:utf32 = 1; */ } void main() { immutable uint8_t[] s8 = // UTF-8 [ 0xe2, 0x88, 0x80, 0x78, 0x20, 0xe2, 0x88, 0x83, 0x79 ]; immutable uint32_t[] s32 = // UTF32 [ 0x00002200, 0x00000078, 0x00000020, 0x00002203, 0x00000079 ]; assert(lex_utf8(cast(const(uint8_t)*)s8) == 0); assert(lex_utf32(cast(const(uint32_t)*)s32) == 0); } Submatch extraction re2d has two options for submatch extraction. Tags The first option is to use standalone tags of the form @stag or #mtag, where stag and mtag are arbitrary used-defined names. Tags are enabled with -T --tags option or re2c:tags = 1 configuration. Semantically tags are position markers: they can be inserted any- where in a regular expression, and they bind to the corresponding position (or multiple positions) in the input string. S-tags bind to the last matching position, and m-tags bind to a list of posi- tions (they may be used in repetition subexpressions, where a single position in a regular expression corresponds to multiple positions in the input string). All tags should be defined by the user, either manually or with the help of svars and mvars blocks. If there is more than one way tags can be matched against the input, ambiguity is resolved using leftmost greedy disambiguation strategy. Captures The second option is to use capturing groups. They are enabled with --captures option or re2c:captures = 1 configuration. There are two flavours for different disambiguation policies, --leftmost-captures (the default) is for leftmost greedy policy, and, --posix-captures is for POSIX longest-match policy. In this mode all parenthesized subexpressions are considered capturing groups, and a bang can be used to mark non-capturing groups: (! ... ). With --invert-captures option or re2c:invert-captures = 1 configuration the meaning of bang is inverted. The number of groups for the matching rule is stored in a variable yynmatch (the whole regular expression is group number zero), and submatch results are stored in yypmatch array. Both yyn- match and yypmatch should be defined by the user, and yypmatch size must be at least [yynmatch * 2]. Use maxnmatch block to define YY- MAXNMATCH, a constant that equals to the maximum value of yynmatch among all rules. Captvars Another way to use capturing groups is the --captvars option or re2c:captvars = 1 configuration. The only difference with --captures is in the way the generated code stores submatch results: instead of yynmatch and yypmatch re2d generates variables yytl<k> and yytr<k> for k-th capturing group (the user should declare these using an svars block). Captures with variables support two disambiguation policies: --leftmost-captvars or re2c:leftmost-captvars = 1 for leftmost greedy policy (the default one) and --posix-captvars or re2c:posix-captvars for POSIX longest-match policy. Under the hood all these options translate into tags and Tagged Determinis- tic Finite Automata with Lookahead. The core idea of TDFA is to minimize the overhead on submatch extraction. In the extreme, if there're no tags or captures in a regular expression, TDFA is just an ordinary DFA. If the number of tags is moderate, the overhead is barely noticeable. The gener- ated TDFA uses a number of tag variables which do not map directly to tags: a single variable may be used for different tags, and a tag may require multiple variables to hold all its possible values. Eventually ambiguity is resolved, and only one final variable per tag survives. Tag variables should be defined using stags or mtags blocks. If lexer state is stored, tag variables should be part of it. They also need to be updated by YY- FILL. S-tags support the following operations: * save input position to an s-tag: t = YYCURSOR with C pointer API or a user-defined operation YYSTAGP(t) with generic API * save default value to an s-tag: t = NULL with C pointer API or a user-de- fined operation YYSTAGN(t) with generic API * copy one s-tag to another: t1 = t2 M-tags support the following operations: * append input position to an m-tag: a user-defined operation YYMTAGP(t) with both default and generic API * append default value to an m-tag: a user-defined operation YYMTAGN(t) with both default and generic API * copy one m-tag to another: t1 = t2 S-tags can be implemented as scalar values (pointers or offsets). M-tags need a more complex representation, as they need to store a sequence of tag values. The most naive and inefficient representation of an m-tag is a list (array, vector) of tag values; a more efficient representation is to store all m-tags in a prefix-tree represented as array of nodes (v, p), where v is tag value and p is a pointer to parent node. Here is a simple example of using s-tags to parse semantic versions con- sisting of three numeric components: major, minor, patch (the latter is op- tional). See below for a more complex example that uses YYFILL. // re2d $INPUT -o $OUTPUT module main; struct SemVer { int major; int minor; int patch; }; private int s2n(const(char)* s, const(char)* e) { // pre-parsed string to number int n = 0; for (; s < e; ++s) n = n * 10 + (*s - '0'); return n; } private bool lex(const(char)* str, ref SemVer ver) { const(char)* yycursor = str, yymarker; // Final tag variables available in semantic action. /*!svars:re2c format = 'const(char)* @@;\n'; */ // Intermediate tag variables used by the lexer (must be autogenerated). /*!stags:re2c format = 'const(char)* @@;\n'; */ /*!re2c re2c:yyfill:enable = 0; re2c:tags = 1; re2c:YYCTYPE = "char"; num = [0-9]+; @t1 num @t2 "." @t3 num @t4 ("." @t5 num)? [\x00] { ver.major = s2n(t1, t2); ver.minor = s2n(t3, t4); ver.patch = t5 != null ? s2n(t5, yycursor - 1) : 0; return true; } * { return false; } */ } void main() { SemVer v; assert(lex("23.34", v) && v.major == 23 && v.minor == 34 && v.patch == 0); assert(lex("1.2.999", v) && v.major == 1 && v.minor == 2 && v.patch == 999); assert(!lex("1.a", v)); } Here is a more complex example of using s-tags with YYFILL to parse a file with newline-separated semantic versions. Tag variables are part of the lexer state, and they are adjusted in YYFILL like other input positions. Note that it is necessary for s-tags because their values are invalidated after shifting buffer contents. It may not be necessary in a custom imple- mentation where tag variables store offsets relative to the start of the input string rather than the buffer, which may be the case with m-tags. // re2d $INPUT -o $OUTPUT --tags module main; import core.stdc.string; import core.stdc.stdio; import std.stdio; enum BUFSIZE = 4095; struct Input { FILE* file; char[BUFSIZE + 1] buffer;// +1 for sentinel char* yylimit, yycursor, yymarker, token; // Intermediate tag variables must be part of the lexer state passed to YYFILL. // They don't correspond to tags and should be autogenerated by re2c. /*!stags:re2c format = 'char* @@;'; */ bool eof; }; struct SemVer { int major; int minor; int patch; }; private int s2n(const(char)* s, const(char)* e) { // pre-parsed string to number int n = 0; for (; s < e; ++s) n = n * 10 + (*s - '0'); return n; } private int fill(ref Input it) { if (it.eof) return 1; const size_t shift = it.token - it.buffer.ptr; const size_t used = it.yylimit - it.token; // Error: lexeme too long. In real life could reallocate a larger buffer. if (shift < 1) return 2; // Shift buffer contents (discard everything up to the current token). memmove(cast(void*)it.buffer.ptr, it.token, used); it.yylimit -= shift; it.yycursor -= shift; it.yymarker -= shift; it.token -= shift; // Tag variables need to be shifted like other input positions. The check // for non-null is only needed if some tags are nested inside of alternative // or repetition, so that they can have null value. /*!stags:re2c format = "if (it.@@) it.@@ -= shift;\n"; */ // Fill free space at the end of buffer with new data from file. it.yylimit += fread(it.yylimit, 1, BUFSIZE - used, it.file); it.yylimit[0] = 0; it.eof = it.yylimit < (it.buffer.ptr + BUFSIZE); return 0; } private bool lex(ref Input yyrecord, ref SemVer[] vers) { // Final variables available in semantic actions. /*!svars:re2c format = 'char* @@;'; */ for (;;) { yyrecord.token = yyrecord.yycursor; /*!re2c re2c:api = record; re2c:YYCTYPE = "char"; re2c:YYFILL = "fill(yyrecord) == 0"; re2c:eof = 0; num = [0-9]+; num @t1 "." @t2 num @t3 ("." @t4 num)? [\n] { int major = s2n(yyrecord.token, t1); int minor = s2n(t2, t3); int patch = t4 != null ? s2n(t4, yyrecord.yycursor - 1) : 0; SemVer ver = SemVer(major, minor, patch); vers ~= ver; continue; } $ { return true; } * { return false; } */ } assert(0); } void main() { const char[] fname = "input"; const char[] content = "1.22.333\n' "; SemVer[BUFSIZE] expect = SemVer(1, 22, 333); SemVer[] actual; // Prepare input file: a few times the size of the buffer, containing // strings with zeroes and escaped quotes. FILE* f = fopen(fname.ptr, "w"); for (int i = 0; i < BUFSIZE; ++i) { fwrite(cast(const(void*)) content.ptr, 1, content.length - 2, f); // skip null-terminator } fclose(f); // Initialize lexer state: all pointers are at the end of buffer. Input it; it.file = fopen(fname.ptr, "r"); it.yycursor = it.yymarker = it.token = it.yylimit = it.buffer.ptr + BUFSIZE; it.eof = 0; // Sentinel (at YYLIMIT pointer) is set to zero, which triggers YYFILL. it.yylimit[0] = 0; // Run the lexer. assert(lex(it, actual) && actual == expect); // Cleanup: remove input file. fclose(it.file); remove(fname.ptr); } Here is an example of using capturing groups to parse semantic versions. // re2d $INPUT -o $OUTPUT module main; struct SemVer { int major, minor, patch; }; private int s2n(const(char)* s, const(char)* e) { // pre-parsed string to number int n = 0; for (; s < e; ++s) n = n * 10 + (*s - '0'); return n; } private bool lex(const(char)* str, ref SemVer ver) { const(char)* yycursor = str, yymarker; // Final tag variables available in semantic action. /*!svars:re2c format = 'const(char)* @@;\n'; */ // Intermediate tag variables used by the lexer (must be autogenerated). /*!stags:re2c format = 'const(char)* @@;\n'; */ /*!re2c re2c:yyfill:enable = 0; re2c:captvars = 1; re2c:YYCTYPE = "char"; num = [0-9]+; (num) "." (num) ("." num)? [\x00] { ver.major = s2n(yytl1, yytr1); ver.minor = s2n(yytl2, yytr2); ver.patch = yytl3 ? s2n(yytl3 + 1, yytr3) : 0; return true; } * { return false; } */ } void main() { SemVer v; assert(lex("23.34", v) && v.major == 23 && v.minor == 34 && v.patch == 0); assert(lex("1.2.999", v) && v.major == 1 && v.minor == 2 && v.patch == 999); assert(!lex("1.a", v)); } Here is an example of using m-tags to parse a version with a variable num- ber of components. Tag variables are stored in a trie. // re2d $INPUT -o $OUTPUT module main; enum MtagRoot = -1; // An m-tag tree is a way to store histories with an O(1) copy operation. // Histories naturally form a tree, as they have common start and fork at some // point. The tree is stored as an array of pairs (tag value, link to parent). // An m-tag is represented with a single link in the tree (array index). struct Mtag { const(char)* elem; // tag value int pred; // index of the predecessor node or root }; alias MtagTrie = Mtag[]; alias Ver = int[]; private int s2n(const(char)* s, const(char)* e) { // pre-parsed string to number int n = 0; for (; s < e; ++s) n = n * 10 + (*s - '0'); return n; } // Append a single value to an m-tag history. private void add_mtag(ref MtagTrie trie, ref int mtag, const(char)* value) { Mtag m = {value, mtag}; mtag = cast(int)trie.length; trie ~= [m]; } // Recursively unwind tag histories and collect version components. private void unfold(const ref MtagTrie trie, int x, int y, ref Ver ver) { // Reached the root of the m-tag tree, stop recursion. if (x == MtagRoot && y == MtagRoot) return; // Unwind history further. unfold(trie, trie[x].pred, trie[y].pred, ver); // Get tag values. Tag histories must have equal length. assert(x != MtagRoot && y != MtagRoot); const(char)* ex = trie[x].elem, ey = trie[y].elem; if (ex != null && ey != null) { // Both tags are valid pointers, extract component. ver ~= [s2n(ex, ey)]; } else { // Both tags are null (this corresponds to zero repetitions). assert(ex == null && ey == null); } } private bool parse(const(char)* str, ref Ver ver) { const(char)* yycursor = str, yymarker; MtagTrie mt; // Final tag variables available in semantic action. /*!svars:re2c format = "const(char)* @@;"; */ /*!mvars:re2c format = "int @@;"; */ // Intermediate tag variables used by the lexer (must be autogenerated). /*!stags:re2c format = "const(char)* @@ = null;"; */ /*!mtags:re2c format = "int @@ = MtagRoot;"; */ /*!re2c re2c:yyfill:enable = 0; re2c:tags = 1; re2c:YYCTYPE = "char"; re2c:YYMTAGP = "add_mtag(mt, @@, yycursor);"; re2c:YYMTAGN = "add_mtag(mt, @@, null);"; num = [0-9]+; @t1 num @t2 ("." #t3 num #t4)* [\x00] { ver = []; ver ~= [s2n(t1, t2)]; unfold(mt, t3, t4, ver); return true; } * { return false; } */ } void main() { Ver v; assert(parse("1", v) && v == [1]); assert(parse("1.2.3.4.5.6.7", v) && v == [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]); assert(!parse("1.2.", v)); } Encoding support It is necessary to understand the difference between code points and code units. A code point is a numeric identifier of a symbol. A code unit is the smallest unit of storage in the encoded text. A single code point may be represented with one or more code units. In a fixed-length encoding all code points are represented with the same number of code units. In a vari- able-length encoding code points may be represented with a different number of code units. Note that the "any" rule [^] matches any code point, but not necessarily any code unit (the only way to match any code unit regard- less of the encoding is the default rule *). The generated lexer works with a stream of code units: yych stores a code unit, and YYCTYPE is the code unit type. Regular expressions, on the other hand, are specified in terms of code points. When re2d compiles regular expressions to automata it translates code points to code units. This is generally not a simple map- ping: in variable-length encodings a single code point range may get trans- lated to a complex code unit graph. The following encodings are supported: * ASCII (enabled by default). It is a fixed-length encoding with code space [0-255] and 1-byte code points and code units. * EBCDIC (enabled with --ebcdic or re2c:encoding:ebcdic). It is a fixed-length encoding with code space [0-255] and 1-byte code points and code units. * UCS2 (enabled with --ucs2 or re2c:encoding:ucs2). It is a fixed-length encoding with code space [0-0xFFFF] and 2-byte code points and code units. * UTF8 (enabled with --utf8 or re2c:encoding:utf8). It is a variable-length Unicode encoding. Code unit size is 1 byte. Code points are represented with 1 -- 4 code units. * UTF16 (enabled with --utf16 or re2c:encoding:utf16). It is a vari- able-length Unicode encoding. Code unit size is 2 bytes. Code points are represented with 1 -- 2 code units. * UTF32 (enabled with --utf32 or re2c:encoding:utf32). It is a fixed-length Unicode encoding with code space [0-0x10FFFF] and 4-byte code points and code units. Include files include/unicode_blocks.re, include/unicode_categories.re and include/unicode_properties.re provide re2d definitions for blocks, cate- gories and properties described in the Unicode standard. Option --input-encoding specifies source file encoding, which can be used to enable Unicode literals in regular expressions. For example --input-en- coding utf8 tells re2d that the source file is in UTF8 (it differs from --utf8 which sets input text encoding). Option --encoding-policy specifies the way re2d handles Unicode surrogates (code points in range [0xD800-0xDFFF]). Below is an example of a lexer for UTF8 encoded Unicode identifiers. // re2d $INPUT -o $OUTPUT -8 -i module main; /*!include:re2c "unicode_categories.re" */ private int lex(const(char)* s) { const(char)* yycursor = s, yymarker; /*!re2c re2c:YYCTYPE = "char"; re2c:yyfill:enable = 0; // Simplified "Unicode Identifier and Pattern Syntax" // (see https://unicode.org/reports/tr31) id_start = L | Nl | [$_]; id_continue = id_start | Mn | Mc | Nd | Pc | [\u200D\u05F3]; identifier = id_start id_continue*; identifier { return 0; } * { return 1; } */ } void main() { assert(lex("_Dh<<Dh'Dh<micro>Dh1/2NDh,NDh,DhoDh<degree>NDh3/4N") == 0); assert(lex("!!!")==1); } Include files re2d allows one to include other files using a block of the form /*!in- clude:re2c FILE */ or %{include FILE %}, or an in-block directive !include FILE ;, where FILE is a path to the file to be included. re2d looks for include files in the directory of the including file and in include loca- tions, which can be specified with the -I option. Include blocks/directives in re2d work in the same way as C/C++ #include: FILE contents are copy-pasted verbatim in place of the block/directive. Include files may have further includes of their own. Use --depfile option to track build de- pendencies of the output file on include files. re2d provides some prede- fined include files that can be found in the include/ subdirectory of the project. These files contain definitions that may be useful to other projects (such as Unicode categories) and form something like a standard library for re2d. Below is an example of using include files. Include file 1 (definitions.d) enum Result{ OK, FAIL }; /*!re2c number = [1-9][0-9]*; */ Include file 2 (extra_rules.re.inc) // floating-point numbers frac = [0-9]* "." [0-9]+ | [0-9]+ "."; exp = 'e' [+-]? [0-9]+; float = frac exp? | [0-9]+ exp; float { return Result.OK; } Input file // re2d $INPUT -o $OUTPUT -i /*!include:re2c "definitions.d" */ private Result lex(const(char)* s) { const(char)* yycursor = s, yymarker; /*!re2c re2c:YYCTYPE = "char"; re2c:yyfill:enable = 0; * { return Result.FAIL; } number { return Result.OK; } !include "extra_rules.re.inc"; */ } void main() { assert(lex("123") == Result.OK); assert(lex("123.4567") == Result.OK); } Header files re2d allows one to generate header file from the input .re file using --header option or re2c:header configuration and block pairs of the form /*!header:re2c:on*/ and /*!header:re2c:off*/, or %{header:on%} and %{header:off%}. The first block marks the beginning of header file, and the second block marks the end of it. Everything between these blocks is processed by re2d, and the generated code is written to the file specified with --header option or re2c:header configuration (or stdout if neither op- tion nor configuration is used). Autogenerated header file may be needed in cases when re2d is used to generate definitions that must be visible from other translation units. Here is an example of generating a header file that contains definition of the lexer state with tag variables (the number variables depends on the regular grammar and is unknown to the programmer). Input file // re2d $INPUT -o $OUTPUT -i --header lexer/state.d module main; import core.stdc.stddef; import lexer.state; // the module is generated by re2c /*!header:re2c:on*/ module lexer.state; struct LexerState { const(char)* str, yycursor; /*!stags:re2c format = "const(char)* @@;"; */ }; /*!header:re2c:off*/ private long lex(ref LexerState yyrecord) { const(char)* t; /*!re2c re2c:api = record; re2c:YYCTYPE = "char"; re2c:tags = 1; re2c:yyfill:enable = 0; re2c:header = "lexer/state.d"; [a]* @t [b]* { return t - yyrecord.str; } */ } void main() { const(char)* s = "ab"; LexerState st = {s, s /*!stags:re2c format = ", null"; */}; assert(lex(st) == 1); const(char)* s2 = "aaabbbbbbbb"; LexerState st2 = {s2, s2 /*!stags:re2c format = ", null"; */}; assert(lex(st2) == 3); } Header file /* Generated by re2c */ module lexer.state; struct LexerState { const(char)* str, yycursor; const(char)* yyt1; }; Skeleton programs With the -S, --skeleton option, re2d ignores all non-re2d code and gener- ates a self-contained C program that can be further compiled and executed. The program consists of lexer code and input data. For each constructed DFA (block or condition) re2d generates a standalone lexer and two files: an .input file with strings derived from the DFA and a .keys file with ex- pected match results. The program runs each lexer on the corresponding .in- put file and compares results with the expectations. Skeleton programs are very useful for a number of reasons: * They can check correctness of various re2d optimizations (the data is generated early in the process, before any DFA transformations have taken place). * Generating a set of input data with good coverage may be useful for both testing and benchmarking. * Generating self-contained executable programs allows one to get minimized test cases (the original code may be large or have a lot of dependen- cies). The difficulty with generating input data is that for all but the most trivial cases the number of possible input strings is too large (even if the string length is limited). re2d solves this difficulty by generating sufficiently many strings to cover almost all DFA transitions. It uses the following algorithm. First, it constructs a skeleton of the DFA. For encod- ings with 1-byte code unit size (such as ASCII, UTF-8 and EBCDIC) skeleton is just an exact copy of the original DFA. For encodings with multibyte code units skeleton is a copy of DFA with certain transitions omitted: namely, re2d takes at most 256 code units for each disjoint continuous range that corresponds to a DFA transition. The chosen values are evenly distributed and include range bounds. Instead of trying to cover all possi- ble paths in the skeleton (which is infeasible) re2d generates sufficiently many paths to cover all skeleton transitions, and thus trigger the corre- sponding conditional jumps in the lexer. The algorithm implementation is limited by ~1Gb of transitions and consumes constant amount of memory (re2d writes data to file as soon as it is generated). Visualization and debug With the -D, --emit-dot option, re2d does not generate code. Instead, it dumps the generated DFA in DOT format. One can convert this dump to an im- age of the DFA using Graphviz or another library. Note that this option shows the final DFA after it has gone through a number of optimizations and transformations. Earlier stages can be dumped with various debug options, such as --dump-nfa, --dump-dfa-raw etc. (see the full list of options). SEE ALSO You can find more information about re2c at the official website: http://re2c.org. Similar programs are flex(1), lex(1), quex(- http://quex.sourceforge.net). AUTHORS re2d was originally written by Peter Bumbulis (peter@csg.uwaterloo.ca) in 1993. Marcus Boerger and Dan Nuffer spent several years to turn the origi- nal idea into a production ready code generator. Since then it has been maintained and developed by multiple volunteers, most notably, Brian Young (bayoung@acm.org), Marcus Boerger, Dan Nuffer (- nuffer@users.sourceforge.net), Ulya Trofimovich (skvadrik@gmail.com), Serghei Iakovlev, Sergei Trofimovich, Petr Skocik, ligfx raekye and PolarGoose. RE2D(1)
NAME | SYNOPSIS | INTRODUCTION | BASICS | HANDLING THE END OF INPUT | BUFFER REFILLING | FEATURES | SEE ALSO | AUTHORS
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